The Synthesis of 2-Oxo-1-Pyrrole Alkyl Propionitrile

The nucleophilic addition reaction was happened between 2-pyrrolidone and acrylonitrile in the toluene solvent using the PTC and sodium hydroxide respectively as phase transfer agent and catalyst. The nitrile fraction which seemed as pale yellow liquid was obtained by rectification. The effect of types and amount of PTC on gas chromatographic purity and yield of product were studied. The results showed that a better product could be obtained by using BTEAC as the catalyst compared to the CTAB and TBA. The optimum experimental condition was determined by the orthogonal experimental method. The yield was as high up to 94.2% when the quality score of BTEAC accounted for 0.5% of the total feeding mass, the concentration of aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide was 10%, acrylonitrile excessed 5%, gas chromatographic purity of the product was 98.5%.

Selectivity in feeding preferences and ranging patterns in spider monkeys Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis of northeastern Yucatan peninsula, Mexico

The spider monkey, a fruit specialist and important seed dispersal agent in the Neotropics, is an endangered primate due to habitat loss, hunting and the pet trade. Spider monkeys have been the subject of a few studies in Central and South America, but little is known about the diet and ranging for this primate in southern Mexico. Here we report the results of a six-month long study (October 2010 to March 2011) of the feeding preferences and ranging patterns of the Yucatan spider monkey Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis living in the “Ya´ax´che” reserve by the Caribbean coast in northeast Yucatan peninsula. Focal animal and scan sampling as well as GPS tracking were used to document spider monkey feeding behavior, location of food trees and ranging in the reserve. The spider monkeys used 36 species of plants (94% trees; n = 432) and six non tree morphospecies as a source of food. Six tree species accounted for ≥80% of total feeding time and for 74% of all trees used. Fruits accounted for 59% of total feeding time, followed by leaves (35%), palm piths (5%) and other plant parts (1%). Total range used by the monkeys was estimated at 43% of semievergreen rainforest habitat available (ca 40ha). Range use was not random with segments showing light, moderate and heavy use; the use of different areas of their range varied monthly and was closely linked to the spatial dispersion of the trees used for food.

Anatomical Correlates to Nectar Feeding among the Strepsirrhines of Madagascar: Implications for Interpreting the Fossil Record

One possible ecological scenario for the origin of primates is the archaic pollination and coevolution hypothesis. Its proponents contend that the consumption of nectar by some early primates and the resulting cross-pollination is an example of coevolution that drove adaptive radiations in some primates. This hypothesis is perhaps ecologically sound, but it lacks the morphology-behavior links that would allow us to test it using the fossil record. Here we attempt to identify cranial adaptations to nectar feeding among the strepsirrhines of Madagascar in order to provide such links. Many Malagasy strepsirrhines are considered effective cross-pollinators of the flowers they feed from, and nectar consumption represents as much as 75% of total feeding time. Previous studies identified skeletal correlates to nectar feeding in the crania of nonprimate mammals; from these, nine cranial measurements were chosen to be the focus of the present study. Results indicate that Cheirogaleus, Varecia, and Eulemur mirror other nectar-feeding mammals in having elongated crania and/or muzzles. These strepsirrhines might be effective cross-pollinators, lending support to the coevolution hypothesis.

Diets and foraging behaviour of red and eastern grey kangaroos in arid shrub land: is feeding behaviour involved in the range expansion of the eastern grey kangaroo into the arid zone?

Eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) have expanded into arid areas usually the habitat of red kangaroos (Macropus rufus). Extra watering sites for domestic stock is the suggested reason. However, changes in vegetation also have occurred due to grazing from domestic stock. We investigated the foraging strategies of M. giganteus and M. rufus in arid rangeland to see if these are involved in the range changes. Foraging patterns were similar, with both species mostly foraging at night; total feeding times were the same. M. giganteus and M. rufus had differing diets, though there was considerable overlap of 81 - 87%. Both species were highly selective, having similar narrow dietary niche breaths. Differences in plant preferences occurred and though both species had a preference for grass that of M. giganteus was higher. A larger foregut in M. giganteus reinforces its focus on grass. M. rufus also selected dicot forbs and malvaceous sub-shrubs. Both kangaroos showed avoidance of abundant chenopod shrubs (saltbushes and bluebushes) and trees. It is likely that the changes to arid-zone vegetation, with a shift to grass and annual dicot forbs, has been important for the expansion of M. giganteus, possibly combined with the greater availability of water.

Patterns of Nestling Feeding in Harris's Sparrows, Zonotrichia querula and White-crowned Sparrows, Z. leucophrys, in the Northwest Territories, Canada

Patterns of nestling feeding by males and females were compared in sympatric populations of Harris’s Sparrows (Zonotrichia querula) and Gambel’s White-crowned Sparrows (Z. leucophrys gambelii) in the Northwest Territories, Canada. In both species, only the female brooded young. Total feeding rate (both parents), and male and female feeding rates, increased with nestling age in both species; total feeding rates did not differ significantly between species. Nestlings of both species were fed most frequently by females during the early part of the nestling period (day 0-5), and feeding rates did not approach parity until nestlings were 6-8 d old. Patterns of nestling feeding, including initially low male provisioning, in Harris’s Sparrows and White-crowned Sparrows at my low arctic study site were similar to those in other populations of Zonotrichia. Low levels of male nestling care, relative to females, appears to be relatively uncommon among socially monogamous passerines. Reduced male care may be adaptive in temperate environments, as it would allow males to pursue other mating opportunities. However, reasons for persistence of the trait in the low arctic, where breeding is highly synchronous, remain unclear.

Daily food intakes and feeding strategies of sows given food ad libitum and allocated to two different space allowances in a communal farrowing system over parturition and during lactation

A total of 16 multiparous (range 2nd to 9th parity) Camborough sows were housed over parturition and during lactation in a group farrowing system. Two replicates of four sows were studied in the large pen (L) and two further replicates studied in the small pen (S) configuration, providing 13•4 m2 and 8•6 m2 per sow, respectively. A lactation diet providing 14 MJ/kg digestible energy (DE) and 180 g/kg crude protein was supplied ad libitum via a sow-operated feeder, adapted to facilitate the calculation of individual food intakes. The influence of environmental, physical, and production factors upon food intakes and feeding strategies was investigated. Daily food intakes of 7•69 (s.e. 0•31) kg and 7•72 (s.e. 0•35) kg were achieved during lactation by sows in the L and S pen configurations, respectively, accomplished by sows taking a series of small meals throughout the day. Sows in the S pen area made fewer visits to the feeder and spent less time per day feeding than sows in the L pen area. However, more food was consumed per visit by the S sows, resulting in similar daily food intakes in both treatment groups. There was a depression in lactation food intakes of sows housed at a mean daily ambient temperature of 17•5ºC compared with the other sow groups. The majority of sows consumed energy well in excess of their predicted requirements during lactation, whilst one sow in the L and two in the S pen areas had intakes within ±3•4 MJ DE of predictions. Only two of the L sows had food intakes that produced an energy deficit. In the L pen area, two distinct peaks of feeding activity occurred from 09:00 to 13:00 h and from 15:00 to 23:00 h that accounted for 0•77 of the total feeding time. In contrast, in the S pen configuration, one prolonged period of feeding occurred from 09:00 to 22:00 h accounting for 0•88 of total feeding time. The results show that S sows adapted their feeding patterns to maintain similar daily intakes to those of L sows, thus demonstrating that an ad libitum food supply enabled sows to obtain individual nutritional requirements in a communal farrowing system.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON OVIPOSITION, FEEDING, AND LONGEVITY OF LIRIOMYZA TRIFOLII (DIPTERA: AGROMYZIDAE)

The effect of selected constant temperatures (15.6°, 21.1°, 26.7°, 32.2°, 37.8 °C) on oviposition, feeding, and longevity of Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) was examined in the laboratory with chrysanthemum, Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat, as a host plant. There was no significant difference in total feeding at 21.1°, 26.7°, and 32.2 °C nor was there significant difference in egg deposition at these temperatures. The ratio egg deposition: feeding was significantly larger at 26.7 °C. Longevity was similar (12–16 days) at all temperatures except 37.8 °C where it was reduced to ca. 3 days. The effect of temperature was more pronounced when feeding and oviposition were analyzed per day. Maximum feeding occurred at 32.2 °C while significantly more oviposition was found at 26.7 °C. An estimate of the threshold temperature for oviposition was 12.2 °C which was higher than that observed experimentally (10 °C). Ninety percent of oviposition occurred with 550°D of adult female life (above base 10 °C).

The Interrelation of Biting and Filtering in the Feeding Activity of the Northern Anchovy (Engraulis mordax)

A previous study showed that the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) captures Artemia adults (3.7 mm long) by biting and Artemia nauplii (0.65 mm long) by filter feeding. This study shows that the ratio of biting to filtering activity in small schools varies with the relative concentration of Artemia adults and nauplii in the water. Activity was half biting and half filter feeding when Artemia adults were 2% by dry weight of the available biomass, but was entirely biting when Artemia adults exceeded about 7% of the biomass.It is estimated that when feeding activity is half biting and half filtering, Artemia adults and nauplii would contribute equal dry weights to ingestion, and that the sum of the two would be the same as that possible if total activity had been filtering. When relative concentration of Artemia adults is high enough to induce total biting activity, the dry weight ingested per unit time would be double that possible by filtering alone on the nauplii present.Ratios of large-to-small crustaceans are relatively high near the surface at night off southern California, which suggests that biting activity could often exceed 50% of total feeding activity. If the plankton does support a high percentage of biting activity, a large part of the area should usually provide the anchovy with its daily nutritional needs.

FISH VISCERAL FLOUR AS A SOURCE OF PROTEIN FOR GROWING-FINISHING BACON PIGS

Two experiments, involving 144 individually-fed pigs, were conducted to determine the effects of fish visceral flour in growing and finishing rations on the performance and carcass characteristics of bacon pigs.The most rapid average daily gains in this study were obtained from pigs fed mixtures of fish visceral flour and soybean meal. Pigs fed fish visceral flour as the only source of supplementary protein made slower gains in both experiments than those fed other rations.Pigs fed high energy rations made more rapid gains in the finishing period and more efficient gains in the finishing and total feeding periods than those fed the control rations.Level of fish visceral flour in the ration had no significant effect on carcass scores and grades. However, area of loin muscle decreased with increasing levels of fish visceral flour. High energy rations had an adverse effect on carcass measurements.

The Feeding Habits of Plaice Post-Larvae in the Southern Bight

An examination was made of the stomach contents of plaice post-larvae taken from the Southern Bight spawning ground in the spring of 1950. They were found to be feeding mainly on a soft-bodied prey, which left characteristically shaped faecal pellets and an undigested matrix vesicle as the only evidence of its nature. Pellets from the post-larvae compared closely in shape with those of Oikopleura dioica, found in the plankton of the spawning area during the period of post-larval development.In 1951, undigested Oikopleura were seen in the oesophageal regions of a few dissected specimens, in addition to typical indigestible remains in a large proportion of the total feeding post-larvae examined.Records for 1946 suggest a similar exploitation of the Oikopleura population by plaice post-larvae, although the phenomenon was not repeated in 1947, when inclement weather may have interfered with the annual outburst of this prey.The phenomenon of food selection by plaice post-larvae is discussed, with special reference to the part that vulnerability may play in limiting the number of species of prey available as food.A feature of this and other investigations on post-larval feeding, was the occurrence of a high proportion of empty stomachs. An experiment designed to test a regurgitation hypothesis, revealed the existence of a marked diurnal pattern of feeding activity, apparently influenced by light conditions. The importance of light in feeding behaviour was confirmed by tank experiments. In this investigation a large proportion of the empty stomachs encountered can be explained by reference to diurnal fluctuations in feeding activity, supporting the view that plaice post-larvae are visual feeders.