scholarly journals The scattering of light by liquid boundaries and its relation to surface tension. —Part II

1925 ◽  
Vol 109 (749) ◽  
pp. 150-157 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Surface Tension ◽  
Surface Effect ◽  
Carbon Disulphide ◽  
Volume Effect ◽  
Surface Scattering ◽  
Angle Of Incidence ◽  
Scattering Of Light ◽  
Transparent Liquid ◽  
Extensive Collection ◽  
The Comparative Study

In the first paper, a description was given of the scattering of light by metallic liquid surfaces, particularly of the manner in which the intensity and state of polarisation of the scattered rays vary with the angle of incidence of the primary rays and the direction of observation. We now proceed to consider the phenomena observed when the clean and dust-free surface of a transparent liquid is strongly illuminated. Whereas in the case of metals we have a very few substances which are liquid at ordinary temperatures, an enormous variety of transparent liquids is available for the purpose of the present study. In fact, at the time the investigation was taken up, an extensive collection of pure organic chemicals had been obtained from Kahlbaum, and bulbs containing some 64 different liquids, rendered dust-free by repeated distillation in cacuo , were ready for a programme of quantitative studies of the internal lightscattering. This collection naturally proved very convenient also for the purpose of the comparative study of the surface-scattering, and the extended observations made possible by its aid served to bring out very clearly the influence on the phenomenon of the surface tension of the liquid, and thus to establish its molecular nature. As already remarked in the first paper, in the case of transparent fluids, the surface-scattering is accompanied by the internal-scattering within the liquid when a pencil of light is concentrated upon the surface, but the two effects are distinguishable from each other in several particulars. By using a good achromatic lens to focus a well-defined image of the sun on the boundary, the surface opalescence appears as a sharply bounded circular or elliptic disc of light, whose aspect varies very much with the direction of observation while that of the internal-scattering does not. The colour of the surface opalescence is also much less blue than that of the internal-scattering, and, indeed, by contrast with it appears nearly white. Green, yellow and red filters held in front of the eye diminish the brightness of the volume effect much more (in increasing order) than they do that of the surface effect, and hence assist greatly in studying or photographing the latter phenomenon. The brightness of the surface-scattering also varies with the direction of observation, while that of the internal-scattering in dust-free liquids is practically invariable. In the case of oblique incidence of the primary beam, the surface-opalescence is conspicuously brighter when viewed in directions adjacent to those of the reflected or transmitted pencils than in other directions. In fact, it then stands out very clearly, and may be distinguished even with liquids such as carbon disulphide or nitrobenzene, in which the internal-scattering is so strong that it usually overpowers the surface effect.

scholarly journals The scattering of light by liquid boundaries and its relation to surface tension. — Part III

1925 ◽  
Vol 109 (750) ◽  
pp. 272-279 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Surface Tension ◽  
Surface Brightness ◽  
Focal Length ◽  
Free Water ◽  
Surface Scattering ◽  
Maximum Brightness ◽  
Scattering Of Light ◽  
Simple Arrangement ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Special Category

In Part II, the phenomena of the scattering of light by the surface of transparent liquids were described in detail. No reference was, however, made to the case of water, which stands in a special category owing to the exceptional properties of this liquid. Of all known transparent fluids at ordinary temperatures water has the highest surface-tension. Its refractive index is also low, and hence its surface-opalescence may be expected to be very feeble. Fortunately, however, the internal scattering in dust-free water is also very small, being in fact much less than that for any other known liquid, and hence, provided water is obtained dust-free and with an uncontaminated surface, there should be no difficulty in observing its surface-opalescence. This was actually found to be the case. By using water subjected to repeated slow distillation in vacuo in carefully cleaned pyrex glass bulbs, it can be obtained quite pure and dust-free. The surface-opalescence may then be observed, and in agreement with anticipation is found to be very feeble; it exhibits features of polarisation and intensity distribution in different directions very similar to those shown by other liquids. For inter-comparison of the surface-scattering power of different liquids, the following simple arrangement was adopted. A beam of sunlight from a large heliostat was used and reflected vertically upwards by a second mirror inclined at 45°. The beam passed through two lenses of equal focal length, which were placed as near together as possible and formed images of the sun upon the surfaces of the liquids contained in bulbs, placed one above each of the lenses. By varying the apertures of the lenses, the brightness of the opalescent areas on the two liquid surfaces could be varied till they were estimated to be of equal brightness, as seen by the eye placed below the surfaces at approximately the same angle. The angle of observation chosen was in each case slightly greater than the critical angle, so that the surface-scattering had maximum brightness. By taking the mean of a sufficient number of readings, fairly dependable measures could be obtained of the ratio of surface-brightness, at least in the case of liquids, for which the internal scattering was not so large as to interfere with the judgment of the eye.

A Molecular Theory of Filler Reinforcement Based on the Concept of Internal Deformation

1962 ◽  
Vol 35 (4) ◽  
pp. 857-876 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yoshiyasu Sato ◽  
Junji Furukawa
Keyword(s):  
Surface Effect ◽  
Local Stress ◽  
Volume Effect ◽  
Molecular Theory ◽  
Suitable Model ◽  
Cavitation Effect ◽  
Swelling Equilibrium ◽  
Internal Mechanism ◽  
Internal Deformation ◽  
Filler Reinforcement

Abstract A molecular theory is presented which gives an analytical method to describe filler-reinforced heterogeneous elastomers and the cavitation therein caused by elongation. By using a suitable model and a new concept a proper method of analysis for a heterogeneous system is obtained. By means of this method the overall internal mechanism of filler reinforcement can be understood; especially it is made clear that reinforcement consists of three effects: a volume effect, a surface effect and a cavitation effect. Also, formulas for several main quantities are derived: tension, swelling tension, Young's modulus, local stress distribution, condition for swelling equilibrium, etc.

scholarly journals A tentative statistical theory of Macleod’s equation for surface tension, and the parachor

1937 ◽  
Vol 159 (897) ◽  
pp. 229-246 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Molecular Weight ◽  
Surface Tension ◽  
Statistical Theory ◽  
Critical Temperature ◽  
Comparative Study ◽  
Intermolecular Forces ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Internal Pressures ◽  
The Comparative Study ◽  
Reasonable Model

Macleod’s (1923) empirical formula for the surface tension σ of a liquid in equilibrium with its own vapour, namely σ = const. ( ρ liq . ─ ρ vap ) 4 , (1) where the ρ ’s are densities in g./c. c., must impress everyone with the feeling that such a simple and successful relation must have some equally simple foundation in thermodynamic or statistical theory. This feeling is only intensified when one realizes the wide use to which this formula has been put by Sugden and his followers. Sugden (1930) writes M *σ ¼ / ρ liq . ─ ρ vap . = P , (2) where M * is the (chemical) molecular weight of the substance, and calls P the parachor . The comparative study of the parachors for various liquids seems to have proved fruitful. This study is described by Sugden as the comparative study of molecular volumes at equal surface tensions, and therefore, to the best of our opportunities, at equal “internal pressures”. We need not here enquire into the precise significance (if any) of the phrase ‘‘internal pressure”. It is sufficient to recognize that the quantity P defined by (2) is in fact a constant (very nearly) for any given substance, independent of the temperature over a wide range, from the critical temperature T c downwards—and having recognized this important empirical fact, to attempt to derive it as a theorem in statistical mechanics applied to a reasonable model, and to give a formula for P in terms of molecular diameters and (or) intermolecular forces.

Theoretical calculation of cathodoluminescence: Influence of surface and bulk parameters on the depletion region of p-type CdTe

2016 ◽  
Vol 30 (06) ◽  
pp. 1650057
Author(s):  
D. Kenieche ◽  
K. Guergouri
Keyword(s):  
Surface Defects ◽  
Surface Effect ◽  
Volume Effect ◽  
Depletion Region ◽  
State Density ◽  
Excitation Beam ◽  
Text Type ◽  
Bulk Parameters ◽  
Two Parameters ◽  
P Type

The study of the influence of the surface and bulk parameters on the depletion region, created by electronic excitation, has been performed on [Formula: see text]-type CdTe. The surface effect is given by two parameters: the energy of surface defects [Formula: see text] and their surface state density [Formula: see text]. However the volume effect is characterized by the diffusion length [Formula: see text] and the concentration of acceptors [Formula: see text]. This investigation demonstrated that, for high values of the excitation beam intensity, the depth of the depletion region [Formula: see text] decreases as [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] decrease and when [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] increase.

scholarly journals The scattering of light by liquid boundaries and its relation to surface-tension. — Part I

1925 ◽  
Vol 108 (748) ◽  
pp. 561-571 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Surface Tension ◽  
Light Scattering ◽  
Surface Energy ◽  
Critical State ◽  
Scattered Light ◽  
Thermal Agitation ◽  
Scattering Of Light ◽  
Metallic Liquids ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Liquid Surfaces

The conception, introduced by Hardy and Langmuir, that a layer of orientated molecules forms the boundary of a liquid and determines its surface-tension, suggests some interesting questions for investigation regarding the optical properties of liquid surfaces. Should not the orientated molecular layer (assuming it to be real) be doubly refractive ? How is the configuration of the molecules at the boundary of a clean liquid surface influenced by the thermal agitation, and how is this related to the surface-energy of the fluid ? Is the surface-layer capable of producing (by reason of the thermal agitation or its optical anisotropy or other cause) the observed elliptic polarisation of the light reflected by liquid surfaces (clean or contaminated as the case may be) at the Brewsterian angle ? The present paper is the first of a series describing the results of work undertaken to find answers to the questions here raised. In various papers published previously, the internal scattering of light in transparent fluids has been discussed, and it has been shown that it is quantitatively connected with the spontaneous fluctuations in density arising from the thermal agitation of the molecules within the fluid. This internal scattering is a volume-effect and is quite distinct from another and very important type of light-scattering which may be expected, namely, that which occurs at the boundaries of reflecting and refracting media, and is a surface-effect , due to the agitation of the boundary. So far as we are aware, very little experimental work has been hitherto published on the subject of this surface-scattering by perfectly clean liquid surfaces. That a substance in the special circumstances of the critical state when it has a vanishingly small surface-energy may exhibit an observable surface opalescence in addition to the familiar body opalescence, was suggested by Smoluchowski in his paper of 1908, on the thermodynamics of the critical state. Nothing seems to have been done to follow up this suggestion till 1913, when Mandelstam published some observations on the special case of the light incident on the boundary between the two layers of a mixture of carbon di-sulphide and methyl alcohol near the critical solution temperature, at which the liquid develops a milky opalescence. Mandelstam noticed that in directions not greatly removed from that of regular reflection from the interface there was also some scattered light, and conjectured from his somewhat meagre and qualitative observations, that the effect was analogous to that predicted by Smoluchowski for the critical state of a single liquid. Early in 1923, the present authors took up the general problem of the light-scattering from optical boundaries and succeeded in observing the bluish opalescence of the clean surfaces of transparent and metallic liquids and discovered the special polarisation effects exhibited for large angles of scattering. A preliminary communication was published in ‘Nature,’ August 25, 1923. Since then, the subject has been extensively developed, no fewer than sixty liquids being studied, and quantitative observations made of the intensity and polarisation of the scattered light for the widest range of angles of incidence and observation and for different physical conditions of the fluid. The work has established a quantitative relationship between the surface-opalescence and the surface-tension of liquids. In Paper I of the series, the case of metallic liquids will be dealt with. In Paper II, transparent fluids will be considered. In Paper III, the effect of contamination on the surface-opalescence of water and the special phenomena of the critical state will be described. In Paper IV, the theory of the phenomena will be discussed. A recent (purely mathematical) paper, by Gans, which appeared about a year after our preliminary announcement was published, may be mentioned in this connection.

The influence of surface effects on the coupling vibration of bioliquid-filled microtubules

2013 ◽  
Vol 227 (10) ◽  
pp. 2377-2385 ◽  
Author(s):  
W Chen ◽  
HB Li ◽  
X Wang
Keyword(s):  
Surface Tension ◽  
Vibration Frequency ◽  
Vibration Mode ◽  
Surface Effect ◽  
Surface Effects ◽  
Coupling Vibration

This article reports the result of an investigation into the effects of surface modulus, residual surface tension and bioliquid density on the vibration frequency of bioliquid-filled microtubule. Results show that influences of surface modulus and residual surface tension on the vibration frequency of bioliquid-filled microtubule are different. The influence of surface effect on the vibration frequency of bioliquid-filled microtubule is dependent on the vibration mode of microtubule and the bioliquid density in the microtubule.

Plasma and surface tension model for explaining the surface effect of tritium generation at cold fusion

1990 ◽  
Vol 12 (3) ◽  
pp. 393-399 ◽  
Author(s):  
H. Hora ◽  
L. Cicchitelli ◽  
G. H. Miley ◽  
M. Ragheb ◽  
A. Scharmann ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Surface Tension ◽  
Surface Effect ◽  
Cold Fusion ◽  
Surface Tension Model

Visual Observations of Chamber Volume Effect on Ebullience From Submerged Orifice Plates

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sanjivan Manoharan ◽  
Milind A. Jog ◽  
Raj M. Manglik
Keyword(s):  
Surface Tension ◽  
Bubble Growth ◽  
High Speed ◽  
Capillary Tube ◽  
Volume Effect ◽  
Orifice Plate ◽  
Orifice Diameter ◽  
Chamber Volume ◽  
Acrylic Glass ◽  
Liquid Pools

Effect of chamber volume upstream of the orifice on ebullience from orifice plates is studied experimentally in this paper. Bubble growth from orifice plates submerged in liquid pools is captured using high speed videography. The orifice plate substrate is acrylic glass and 11 different orifice diameters (diameter range: 0.610< D0< 2.261mm) are utilized. In addition to water, ethanol-water binary mixture with surface tension of 54 mN/m is used to examine the interplay between surface tension and chamber volume effects on bubble characteristics. For an acrylic glass orifice plate with a fixed chamber volume, above a certain transition orifice diameter, the bubbles from the orifice plate are of the same size and shape as those from a capillary tube orifice. However, below this diameter, the bubbles from the orifice plate show significantly different characteristics due to the chamber volume effect. The bubbles are more spherical in shape with the apex being sharper and more pointed. The bubbles also tend to sit closer to the plate due to their abnormally large size while the growth times are much shorter. These differences are highlighted by comparing photographs of bubble growth with and without the chamber volume effect. Additionally, for the medium chamber region, an empirical correlation was proposed to predict bubble departure diameters to within ±15 %. For a fixed chamber volume, variation in surface tension showed no change in the transition orifice diameter.

Investigation of Sea Surface Effect on Shallow Water Reverberation by Coupled Mode Method

2017 ◽  
Vol 25 (02) ◽  
pp. 1750017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bo Gao ◽  
Ning Wang ◽  
Hao Zhong Wang
Keyword(s):  
Shallow Water ◽  
Long Range ◽  
Surface Effect ◽  
Sea Surface ◽  
Surface Scattering ◽  
Sea State ◽  
Coupled Mode ◽  
Mode Method ◽  
Rough Sea Surface ◽  
Rough Sea

The effects of rough sea surface on the long-range bottom reverberation in shallow seas are studied by the coupled mode reverberation theory. The scattering effect caused by irregular rough sea surface is described by couple coefficients. The decaying rules of long-range bottom reverberation level are simulated at different sea states, and the rough sea surface effect on the coherence of distant bottom reverberation is also discussed. It is indicated that irregular upper boundary has changed the propagation effect of the shallow water waveguide, and bottom reverberation, which is dominated among other kinds of reverberation in shallow water, is affected by the sea surface scattering as the increasing sea state. Compared with other literatures, the emphasis of this paper is to present the mechanism of rough sea surface scattering by describing the transfer of energy between different modes, and the details of energy transitions between different modes which are caused by sea surface scattering are presented for different sea states. With the increasing sea state, stronger mode coupling caused by surface scattering would affect the intensity and its space coherence of bottom reverberation obviously.

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