Conclusion: The armed forces and perennial problems

Since the 1970s, the United States has struggled to accept that its economic and military powers are finite. The Conclusion looks at ways the American military might make progress while acknowledging these limitations. The American military could be reinvigorated by better communication between politicians and military leaders, a return to traditional values of prudence and circumspection, and greater support during wartime. Technology may have transformed warfare, but enemies often find low-cost means of reducing their impact. The United States possesses the world’s most sophisticated military force, but sometimes the task is greater than it can fulfill, or the results are not worth the price.

3. Technology, mechanization, and the world wars

Technology alone does not transform warfare. “Technology, mechanization and the world wars” demonstrates that it needs to be paired with organization and sound doctrine. The two world wars saw advances in military aviation and naval warfare. During World War II, resources were divided between two theaters: the European and the Pacific. American society was transformed, with a booming economy and more opportunities in defense and the military. Not everyone benefited; hundreds of thousands of Japanese Americans were interned. Conventional bombings and blockades diminished in effectiveness throughout World War II, which ended with the unprecedented decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan.

2. The struggle for military professionalism

“The struggle for military professionalism” looks at the positive effect of the West Point Academy on American military expertise and the improved sense of professionalism among its graduating classes. During the American Civil War, non-graduates could make more progress in the military. The Union Army’s victory stemmed from their ability to convert their superior manpower and technology into military power. After the war, the Army and Navy suffered crises of mission. A curriculum was founded for the Navy, but at the end of the nineteenth century the Army and Navy were still not professionalized. The Navy lacked structure, and the Army had structure but suffered from an outdated military culture.

4. The limits of power

At the end of World War II, America was in a uniquely strong position which it was not always able to leverage. “The limits of power” details the deterioration of America’s relationship with the Soviet Union into weapons stockpiling, brinkmanship, and the threat of mutually assured destruction. The Vietnam War lost popularity over time and while wars in the Gulf captured the public imagination, they fueled anti-American sentiment in those territories. During the War on Terror, strategists first overestimated the effectiveness of technology and then underestimated numbers and costs required for the lengthier, costlier, but more effective “boots on the ground” approach. Care for veterans was also under-resourced.

1. Citizen soldier and sailor vs. standing armed forces

“Citizen soldier and sailor vs. standing armed forces” covers the establishment of the first militias in the colonies. Colonists inherited a British sense of military obligation but were opposed to standing armies. British wars drew in American forces, fostering Anglo-American discord. Stylized European warfare did not translate to the American landscape. Indigenous groups required, and indirectly taught, newer tactics. Americans under George Washington achieved independence through strategic alliances and contributions from the Continental Army, the militia, and partisans. The Navy also developed during the Revolutionary War. After the war, Republicans and Federalists disagreed on the best approach to the military.