Aleppo and Damascus (1117–29)

Chapter 3 Aleppo and Damascus discusses the military high point in the Crusader States’ territorial expansion, a period when they aspired to conquer the major cities of Aleppo and Damascus. On several occasions they came close to achieving this goal but success continually eluded them. This chapter recreates the conflicts fought over these major cities and seeks to provide an explanation for the Franks’ continued failure, particularly given their successes in previous years. Attention is drawn to the sheer scale of the challenge involved in seizing either of these large, fortified metropolises and particular emphasis is placed on the perspective of the local populations towards the enemies who advanced upon their gates.

Introduction

The study of warfare in the Medieval Near East is a fascinating—if often grim—field of research. Here was a region where tens of different factions vied for supremacy decade-after-decade in a rolling sequence of conflicts that saw the relentless making and unmaking of dynasties, empires, and alliances. These wars pitted a bewildering array of military traditions against one another. Protagonists ranged from the well-resourced empires of Fatimid Egypt and Byzantium through to the nomadic Bedouin and Turkmen tribes. Then there were the invading armies of the Crusaders from Western Christendom and the Turks from the Central Asian Steppe; the former determined to maintain and expand their position on the Levantine coastline, and the latter endeavouring to maintain their still-tenuous grip on the Near East as a whole. There were also a myriad of regional powers including Arab dynasties, Kurdish tribes, Armenian lords, and Nizari communities (known as ‘Assassins’), each with its own interests in this complex world, each pursuing a distinct approach to war-making....

Friends and Foes (1099–1129)

Chapter 2 Friends and Foes discusses the Crusader States’ closest neighbours in the early years of the twelfth century. On their southern borders the Franks confronted the Egyptian Fatimid Empire and it will be shown here how the the Franks managed to overcome the many attacks launched against them by Fatimid commanders. On their eastern borders, the Franks faced the Turkish city-states of Damascus and Aleppo. This chapter shows how the Turks were never able to unite against the Franks due both to their continued infighting and to the many other threats to their rule. This was an era where the complete collapse of Turkish authority across Syria was a very real possibility, driven by Frankish attacks as well as by many local rebellions. In this environment, mere survival was often the goal steering these Turkish leaders’ policies and it was frequently in their interests to manage the threat posed by the Crusader States by diplomatic means rather than seeking to drive them out of the Near East altogether. Further North, in the wake of the First Crusade, the Armenian lords of Cilicia and Southern Anatolia seized the opportunity to drive back Turkish authority, but they then had to negotiate new relationships for themselves with the Crusader States. These included moments of both conflict and rivalry as well as and friendship and accord. The early history of their interactions is examined in detail.

Frankish Expansion

Chapter 1, Frankish Expansion, explores the chaotic years following the departure of the First Crusaders. In this period, the Frankish settlers who chose to remain and defend the newly-founded Crusader States were locked in an almost permanent state of war with many of their foes. This chapter recreates their military history, examining how such small numbers of Frankish knights could continue to expand their territories across the Levantine region. Working through each of the four Crusader States in turn, it examines the aspirations of these fledgling states and discusses their evolving strategic goals. In their early days, in the wake of the First Crusade and its military victories, these states could be extremely ambitious when selecting their targets, although their aspirations became more tempered in later years. Close attention is also paid to the level of co-operation demonstrated by these Frankish leaders, along with their willingness to seek allies among both their neighbours and the communities under their control.

Conclusion

This concluding chapter asks perhaps the most important overarching question posed by the military history of the Crusader States: why did the Crusader States ultimately fall in 1187? This discussion will gather together many of the points raised in the above chapters, but there are several further factors which deserve special attention first before moving to an overall synthesis....

Saladin and the Battle of Hattin

Chapter 6 Saladin and the Battle of Hattin focuses on the years preceding the collapse of the kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187. It begins by discussing the rising power of the Kurdish ruler Saladin within the Turkish ruled lands of his former master Nur al-Din and in particular the nature of Kurdish/Turkish relations in previous decades. Close attention is then given to the period 1174–87 when the kingdom of Jerusalem frequently came into conflict with Saladin’s armies. Within this discussion, revisions are suggested for several key scholarly orthodoxies. The military abilities of the Frankish commander—later king—Guy of Lusignan are re-evaluated. To date he has often been considered an incompetent fool, but this conviction is reassessed. Likewise, the crucial battle of Hattin—and the decisions taken by Guy in this vital encounter—are reconsidered in the light of new evidence. Thematic discussion is offered here on Frankish and Turkish approaches to fighting major battles; so too is the role of castles in their strategies. There is also a broad discussion on the causes of war in the Near East throughout this period.

Innovation and Cross-cultural Exchange in the Evolution of Near Eastern Warfare

Chapter 7 Innovation and Cross-cultural Exchange in the Evolution of Near Eastern Warfare considers the armies raised by the Near East’s Frankish and Turkish commanders. It examines the troops under their command—their strengths and weaknesses—as well as the tactics employed by both groups. Particular attention is given to some of the most common features of Turkish and Frankish battlefield stratagems, in particular: the Frankish cavalry charge and ‘fighting marches’ as well as the Turks’ use of feigned flight tactics. A key theme considered throughout this chapter is the question of ‘innovation’ and ‘adaptation’—how far were generals in this period willing (or able) to amend their warcraft so as to better combat their foes?

The Evolving Balance of Power (1130s–1148)

Chapter 4 The Evolving Balance of Power examines the period when the Crusader States’ military expansion was essentially over. It discusses how the Franks adjusted themselves to a new environment in which they were no longer the predominant military force, a reality which became apparent with the rise of the Turkish ruler Zangi and the rapid expansion of his empire, centred on Aleppo and Mosul. The Byzantines also made frequent incursions into Northern Syria and Cilia, compelling the Franks to address their relationship with this powerful northern neighbour. This chapter considers in particular two events of long-term significance for the Crusader States: the fall of Edessa in 1144 and the subsequent arrival of the Second Crusade. It addresses key questions including: why Zangi chose to attack Edessa in December of 1144 and why the Second Crusade’s campaign against Damascus ended in complete failure.

The Rise of Nur al-Din 1149–74

Chapter 5 The Rise of Nur al-Din focuses on the tumultuous years following the Second Crusade. This was an era when Nur al-Din was carving out an empire for himself, seizing Damascus, and coming into conflict with the Anatolian Seljuks and Fatimid Egypt. Many of his campaigns were directed against fellow Turks or other Muslim dynasties and for many periods the Crusader States were only infrequently threatened with invasion. In this chapter, the geopolitical implications of Nur al-Din’s actions are explored to show how the steady agglomeration of power under his rule fundamentally changed the Near East’s political balance. This chapter also contains substantial thematic discussion on the mercenary market in the Crusader States and the size of the armies deployed by the kingdom of Jerusalem.