The Term ἀντίψυχος as an Expiatory Sacrifice of Martyrs in the Light of The Fourth Book of Maccabees and Other Ancient Extra-Biblical Literature

The Fourth Book of Maccabees (4 Macc) in the description of Eleazar's prayer, before he suffered a martyr’s death (6:29) as well as the martyrdom of seven brothers and their mother who suffered for the nation (17:21), the term ἀντίψυχος (which means “given in exchange for life”) is used twice. This adjective appears only twice in the Septuagint (LXX), to be precise, in 4 Macc The context of both passages suggests a broader meaning of the term, translated with reference to a sacrifice of life having a propitiatory, expiatory, vicarious and voluntary character, and even atonement for the sins of the Jewish people. In this article, the subject of expiatory martyrdom in 4 Macc will be taken in the context of the biblical, apocryphal and other ancient texts, with reference to the flow of ideas and terminology of Greco-Roman religion, poetry and philosophy. In addition, possible translations of the term ἀντίψυχος will be analyzed, included in the broader context of Greek and other terminologies, so as to show possible connections between the idea of ​​expiatory martyrdom and the ideas described in the New Testament.

Reviewing the status of corporate social responsibility (CSR) legal framework

PurposeThis paper reviews and analyzes the corporate social responsibility (CSR) legal framework worldwide, discussing the new CSR definition which comprises legal features and debates for and against CSR validation. The work contributes in linking CSR and corporate laws by considering the legislative approaches worldwide.Design/methodology/approachCSR has mostly a voluntary character whilst it entails a normative condition attributable to social and market demands. A detailed examination of CSR worldwide is presented paying attention to international CSR legal framework in Europe, USA, Asia, Africa and Australia. Arguments for and against CSR legalization are studied.FindingsThe authors show that more regulations have to be launched mainly concerning the consequences of corporations' activities impacting the environment. Governments should promote CSR and relative encouragements focusing on a win-win state of affairs for companies.Research limitations/implicationsIt seems that in the future, more regulations will be established particularly concerning the effect of companies' activities toward the environment. Little research has been conducted on the legal aspect of CSR; therefore, future research should focus on this, providing new insights. Analysis in sector level will be helpful and instructive.Practical implicationsMany further disputes have to be worked out to set up and support arrangements which will direct and observe conversions into sustainable, habitable and low pollution.Originality/valueThe authors examine and discuss in details CSR schemes around the world concentrating to the international CSR legal framework in Europe, the USA, Asia, Africa and Australia. At the same time, the authors study the arguments for and against CSR legalization.

‘It's Not Gossip, It's True’: Denunciation and Social Control during the Guatemalan Armed Conflict (1970–85)

Practices of denunciation are at once ubiquitous and marginalised in literature on the Guatemalan armed conflict. Meanwhile, ordinary Guatemalans who spontaneously denounced neighbours, former friends and fellow villagers have largely escaped scrutiny in scholarly work on low-level perpetrators. Departing from untapped confidential documents in the Historical Archive of the National Police, this article provides the first archival study of denunciatory behaviour during the Guatemalan Civil War, specifically at the height of the conflict (1970–85). This contribution reveals both the strategic considerations that spurred state intelligence apparatuses to elicit civilian information as well as the broad range of personal, opportunistic and strategic motives that drove civilians to denounce. The case study questions scholarly consensus on the spontaneous and voluntary character of denunciation by arguing that besides providing novel pathways for opportunistic action, denunciations also opened up new strategies for survival in the face of a civil war that structured available choices.

The Transcultural Projections of the Strategies of Global Integration of the Contemporary Multicultural Societies

The article deals with the innovative theoretical problems related to the research of the prospects for the further development of the integrative multicultural practices and the harmonization of intercultural communications in the multicultural societies of the modern world under economic, political, and cultural globalization. The author presents the characteristic of the conceptual evolution of the idea of ​​multicultural coexistence and analyses the cognitive potential of the concepts of acculturation and cultural diffusion in the cultural and sociological studies. The scientific significance of generalization of the specialized knowledge concerning the real practices of realization of the multicultural projects into the processes of organizing the social order of modern societies under the contexts of increasing the global social movements of the forced and voluntary character of various ethnocultural groups and communities is argued. The article substantiates the need for wider use in scientific studies the concept of transculturalism which has distinct perspectives to become an effective methodological tool to provide the non-violent coexistence of interacting ethnocultural communities presenting different national-states and regional unions. The author identifies specific problematic complexes of transcultural studies paying attention: 1) to the problem of basic determinants that restrict the global universalism of multicultural politics; 2) to the problem of identification of the most conflicting spheres of the contemporary multicultural world; 3) to the problems of the integrative potential of new socio-cultural phenomena. Further scientific researches will contribute to the creation of a new conceptual model of the transcultural integration of contemporary societies.

Migrants and Effective Legal Representation in Criminal Cases via Legal Aid Systems

The European countries are obliged to fulfill the provisions of the European Convention on human rights regarding the protection of the accused rights' and ensuring the principle of fair trial. Nowadays, because of the economic crisis more people are affected by poverty and many immigrants enter Europe. Poor and immigrants who break the law cannot afford to pay for the services of a lawyer and for the most of them the states provide legal aid assistance. This chapter indicates that in order to safeguard the accused rights' it is mandatory for the legal aid lawyer to defend the accused effectively, otherwise the protection is just formal and does not fulfill the substantive conventional obligation of the State for fair trial. It is proposed for the States to establish qualitative criteria for the legal aid lawyers. The voluntary character of the legal aid scheme imposes an imperative duty for the lawyers to ensure fair trial for the poor.

CONSUMER FOOD COOPERATIVES AS COMPLE X ADAPTIVE NETWORKS – THE CASE OF FIVE COOPERATIVES FROM POLAND

This paper is an attempt to present selected Polish consumer food cooperatives as the complex adaptive network. Based on the literature review and structured questionnaire, their compliance with consumer cooperative principles and attitude of the members towards these principles were investigated. It is argued that due to their voluntary character based on networking activities they are subject to adjustment processes. These processes, under the umbrella of the democratic governance, are focused on using these principles as adaptive mechanism.

Consumer food cooperatives as complex adaptive networks the case of five cooperatives from Poland

This paper is an attempt to present selected Polish consumer food cooperatives as the complex adaptive network. Based on the literature review and structured questionnaire, their compliance with consumer cooperative principles and attitude of the members towards these principles were investigated. It is argued that due to their voluntary character based on networking activities they are subject to adjustment processes. These processes, under the umbrella of the democratic governance, are focused on using these principles as adaptive mechanism.

Tourism destination: The networking approach

Different approaches to the analysis of tourism destinations as the basic units of research in tourism, are reviewed in this paper. Traditional geographical and economic perspectives are presented as the bases for more modern system and networking approaches. Network analysis is discussed as the most useful current approach to understand cooperation and coopetition processes taking place in destinations. This approach, developed in general management theory, however, if implicated directly in tourism, is not free from major problems and may lead to misleading conclusions. Among such problems, spatial embeddedness and the non-voluntary character of membership in a network, the crucial role of free goods in product creation, the predominance of SMEs in a destination network, differences between particular destinations and the difficulty in setting clear borders between networks, are discussed.

Can a Consequentialist Be a Good Friend?

Consequentialism is often held to be self-defeating due to its incompatibility with intimate relationships. This objection is especially vivid with respect to friendship, highly voluntary character of which is believed to be irreconcilable with impersonal, teleological and maximizing attitudes. There seems to be hardly any place for the least necessary of loves in die-hard consequentialist’s motivational structure. Another problem arises from the fact that both consequentialist and her friend might feel alienated from their relationship in the face of its immediate termination upon realization that it no longer provides maximal good.

Migrants and Effective Legal Representation in Criminal Cases via Legal Aid Systems

The European countries are obliged to fulfill the provisions of the European Convention on human rights regarding the protection of the accused rights' and ensuring the principle of fair trial. Nowadays, because of the economic crisis more people are affected by poverty and many immigrants enter Europe. Poor and immigrants who break the law cannot afford to pay for the services of a lawyer and for the most of them the states provide legal aid assistance. This chapter indicates that in order to safeguard the accused rights' it is mandatory for the legal aid lawyer to defend the accused effectively, otherwise the protection is just formal and does not fulfill the substantive conventional obligation of the State for fair trial. It is proposed for the States to establish qualitative criteria for the legal aid lawyers. The voluntary character of the legal aid scheme imposes an imperative duty for the lawyers to ensure fair trial for the poor.