Japanese Monks and Chinese Books: Glimpses of Buddhist Sinology in Early Tokugawa Japan

In the17th and 18th centuries, just as English scholars were reading and writing about their heritage in the continental prestige language of Latin, so too were Japanese members of the Buddhist clergy researching and publishing about the Chinese language heritage of their own religious tradition, drawing both on new printed books, often imported from China, and on much earlier manuscripts and printed texts preserved in their own country. The importation and reprinting of the canon by Ōbaku monks and the subsequent flowering of Zen scholarship is already well-known, but we should consider the efforts of Shingon monks in commenting on the heritage they received from China eight centuries earlier, and even the activities of Nichiren monks, who took steps to promote the legacy of Chinese Tiantai Buddhism. Critical reflection on the Buddhist tradition may not have emerged in Japan until the 18th century, but it did so in the context of a world of scholarship concerning an imported classical language that certainly stood comparison with that of the contemporary Anglophone world.

Radiation Intensity and Quality from Sole-source Light-emitting Diodes Affect Seedling Quality and Subsequent Flowering of Long-day Bedding Plant Species

Previous research has shown high-quality annual bedding plant seedlings can be produced in controlled environments using light-emitting diode (LED) sole-source lighting (SSL). However, when only red and blue radiation are used, a delay in time to flower may be present when seedlings of some long-day species are subsequently finished in a greenhouse. Thus, our objective was to evaluate the effects of various radiation qualities and intensities under SSL on the morphology, nutrient uptake, and subsequent flowering of annual bedding plant seedlings with a long-day photoperiodic response. Coreopsis (Coreopsis grandiflora ‘Sunfire’), pansy (Viola ×wittrockiana ‘Matrix Yellow’), and petunia (Petunia ×hybrida ‘Purple Wave’) seedlings were grown at radiation intensities of 105, 210, or 315 µmol·m−2·s−1, achieved from LED arrays with radiation ratios (%) of red:blue 87:13 (R87:B13), red:far-red:blue 84:7:9 (R84:FR7:B9), or red:green:blue 74:18:8 (R74:G18:B8). Four-week-old seedlings were subsequently transplanted and grown in a common greenhouse environment. Stem caliper, root dry mass, and shoot dry mass of seedlings generally increased for all three species as the radiation intensity increased from 105 to 315 µmol·m−2·s−1, regardless of radiation quality. Similarly, stem length of all three species was generally shorter as the radiation intensity increased. Macro- and micronutrient concentrations were also generally lower as the radiation intensity increased for all three species. Pansy seedlings grown under R84:FR7:B9 flowered an average of 7 and 5 days earlier than those under R87:B13 and R74:G18:B8, respectively. These results provide information regarding the specific radiation parameters from commercially available LEDs necessary to produce high-quality seedlings under SSL, with radiation intensity appearing to be the dominant factor in determining seedling quality. Furthermore, the addition of far-red radiation can reduce time to flower after transplant and allow for a faster greenhouse turnover of some species with a long-day photoperiodic response.

Seedling Growth Is Similar under Supplemental Greenhouse Lighting from High-pressure Sodium Lamps or Light-emitting Diodes

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have the potential to replace high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps as the main delivery method of supplemental lighting (SL) in greenhouses. However, few studies have compared growth under the different lamp types. We grew seedlings of geranium (Pelargonium ×hortorum), pepper (Capsicum annuum), petunia (Petunia ×hybrida), snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) at 20 °C under six lighting treatments: five that delivered a photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 90 μmol·m−2·s−1 from HPS lamps (HPS90) or LEDs [four treatments composed of blue (B, 400–500 nm), red (R, 600–700 nm), or white LEDs] and one that delivered 10 μmol·m−2·s−1 from HPS lamps (HPS10), which served as a control with matching photoperiod. Lamps operated for 16 h·d−1 for 14 to 40 days, depending on cultivar and season. The LED treatments defined by their percentages of B, green (G, 500–600 nm), and R light were B10R90, B20R80, B10G5R85, and B15G5R80, whereas the HPS treatments emitted B6G61R33. Seedlings of each cultivar grown under the 90 μmol·m−2·s−1 SL treatments had similar dry shoot weights and all except pepper had a similar plant height, leaf area, and leaf number. After transplant to a common environment, geranium ‘Ringo Deep Scarlet’ and petunia ‘Single Dreams White’ grown under HPS90 flowered 3 days earlier than those grown under HPS10, but flowering time was not different from that in LED treatments. There were no consistent differences in morphology or subsequent flowering among seedlings grown under HPS90 and LED SL treatments. The inclusion of white light in the LED treatments played an insignificant role in growth and development when applied as SL with the background ambient light. The LED fixtures in this study consumed substantially less electricity than the HPS lamps while providing the same PPFD, and seedlings produced were of similar quality, making LEDs a suitable technology option for greenhouse SL delivery.

Hemiparasite – host plant interactions and the impact of herbivory: a field experiment

Schizachyrium scoparium Michx. (Nash) growing naturally with varying numbers of the perennial hemiparasite Pedicularis canadensis L. were randomly assigned to one of four clipping treatments (none, early, late, early and late) to determine how parasitism and herbivory affect the grass and whether herbivory of the host indirectly affects hemiparasite growth. Any clipping eliminated subsequent flowering by S. scoparium in year 1 and reduced the number of plants that flowered in year 2, when no clipping occurred. Only hosts clipped early exhibited depressed growth after one summer. The following year plants that had been clipped twice the previous year produced the least shoot mass, and plants that were never clipped produced the most. Hemiparasite load was negatively associated with host shoot mass, especially in year 1, but did not alter the host’s compensatory response to clipping. The effects of host size and host clipping on the nearest hemiparasite were determined in year 1. Pedicularis canadensis shoot mass declined with host size if the host was clipped late, but increased with host size when clipping occurred once early in the season. Although the impact of hemiparasites and clipping on host growth are independent, clipping can alter the value of the host for parasites.

Timing and Duration of Supplemental Lighting during the Seedling Stage Influence Quality and Flowering in Petunia and Pansy

Increasing the photosynthetic daily light integral (DLI) during the seedling stage promotes seedling growth and flowering in many bedding plants. Our objective was to determine the impact of increased DLI for different periods during the seedling stage on young plant quality and subsequent growth and development. Seeds of petunia (Petunia ×hybrida Vilm.-Andr. ‘Madness Red’) and pansy (Viola ×wittrockiana Gams. ‘Delta Premium Yellow’) were sown into 288-cell plug trays and placed under a 16-h photoperiod provided by sunlight plus 90 μmol·m−2·s−1 [supplemental lighting (SL)] or 3 μmol·m−2·s−1 [photoperiodic lighting (PL)] from high-pressure sodium lamps when the ambient greenhouse photosynthetic photon flux was less than 400 μmol·m−2·s−1 from 0600 to 2200 hr. Plants were grown at 20 °C under PL or SL for the entire seedling stage or were exposed to SL for one-third or two-thirds of the seedling stage. Seedlings were then transplanted into 10-cm pots and grown until flowering with SL at 20 °C. Shoot dry mass of transplants increased linearly with increasing DLI provided to seedlings in petunia (y = −4.75 + 1.86x, R2 = 0.76) and pansy (y = −3.94 + 3.47x, R2 = 0.78) in which y = dry mass (g) and x = DLI (mol·m−2·d−1). SL during the last two-thirds or the entire plug stage increased shoot dry mass and the number of leaves in both species compared with SL during the earlier stage or PL. SL during the last two-thirds or the entire plug stage accelerated flowering, but plants had a lower shoot dry mass and flower bud number at first flowering compared with that in SL during the first third or two-thirds or that in PL. Therefore, SL generally had greater effects on transplant quality and subsequent flowering when provided later in the plug stage than if provided earlier in production.

Effect of Photosynthetic Photon Flux and Temperature on Floral Evocation and Development in the Vernalization-sensitive Ornamental Perennial Salvia ×superba `Blaukönigin'

Varying photothermal ratios (PTR) were supplied to Salvia ×superba Stapf `Blaukönigin' during pre-inductive vegetative development with the exception of a short germination period under uniform conditions. In addition, both unvernalized plants and plants receiving a saturating vernalization treatment of 6 weeks at 5 °C were given two photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) levels (50 or 200 μmol·m-2·s-1) during subsequent inductive 16-hour long days. There were no effects of PTR treatments during vegetative development on subsequent flowering. However, the higher PPF level during inductive long days significantly accelerated floral evocation in unvernalized plants, lowering the leaf number at flowering. The effect was practically negligent after the vernalization requirement was saturated. In a second experiment, varying periods (4, 7, 10, and 14 days or until anthesis) at a PPF of 200 μmol·m-2·s-1 during 20-hour days were given at the beginning of a long-day treatment, either with or without preceding vernalization treatment. Flowering percentage increased considerably as the period at 200 μmol·m-2·s-1 was extended compared with plants grown at a lower PPF of 50 μmol·m-2·s-1. However, the leaf number on flowering plants was not affected, except in unvernalized plants receiving the highest PPF continuously until anthesis, where leaf number was reduced by almost 50%. We propose that the PPF-dependent flowering is facilitated either by the rate of ongoing assimilation or rapid mobilization of stored carbohydrates at the time of evocation. Abortion of floral primordia under the lower PPF (50 μmol·m-2·s-1) irrespective of vernalization treatment indicates that the assimilate requirement for flower bud development is independent of the mechanism for floral evocation.

Coreopsis grandiflora `Sunray' Flowers in Response to Short Days or Vernalization

Coreopsis grandiflora `Sunray' has been reported to flower under long days (LD) following vernalization or short days (SD). The objectives of this study were to characterize the effective duration of vernalization and SD and to determine if photoperiod during vernalization influences flowering. Vegetative cuttings taken from stockplants developed from one seedling were rooted for 2 weeks and grown for 5 weeks. Plants were provided with a 9-hour photoperiod for 2, 4, 6, or 8 weeks or were vernalized at 5 °C under a 16-hour photoperiod for 2, 4, 6 or 8 weeks or under a 9-hour photoperiod for 2 or 8 weeks. Following treatments, plants were grown in a greenhouse at 20 °C under a 16-hour photoperiod. Control plants were grown under constant 9- or 16-hour photoperiod. Leaf development, days to first visible bud (DVB), days to first open flower (DFLW), and height and total number of flower buds at FLW were recorded. No plants flowered under continuous SD. Under continuous LD, two plants flowered on axillary shoots but only after 95 days. All vernalized and SD-treated plants flowered on both terminal and axillary shoots. Photoperiod during vernalization did not affect subsequent flowering. DFLW decreased from 56 to 42 and from 50 to 42 after 2 to 8 weeks of vernalization and SD treatments, respectively. Following 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks of vernalization, plants had 116, 116, 132, and 204 flower buds, respectively. Plant height at FLW of all SD-treated and vernalized plants was similar. Thus, 2 weeks of 9-hour SD or vernalization at 5 °C followed by LD was sufficient for flowering of our clone of C.`Sunray', although longer durations hastened flowering and increased flower bud number.