Inventions created by artificial intelligence software: problems of law enforcement

The article analyzes the issue of determining the author and patent holder of an invention created by artificial intelligence software. The problem of determining the authorship of objects of patent law created by artificial intelligence is considered from two sides: the definition of the author of an individual under the guidance and control of which artificial intelligence has achieved a patentable result, and the recognition of the status of the inventor for the artificial intelligence itself due to the creative nature of the inventive process. It is proved that the definition of the behavior of artificial intelligence by setting the problem and giving the necessary instructions for its solution leads to the recognition of the person giving such instructions as the inventor of the result, and artificial intelligence makes only a means to achieve the result. It is concluded that in order to recognize the author of artificial intelligence software as the inventor of the result developed by such artificial intelligence, it is not enough for the author to take an indirect part by "training" artificial intelligence algorithms and determining the identified errors in their work. The unpredictability and non-obviousness of the decision-making process by artificial intelligence for the programmer does not allow him to recognize the inventor of the results created by the software. At this stage of the development of artificial intelligence technology, the process of creating an invention by artificial intelligence is proposed to be considered as a revision of the parameters and characteristics existing in this field of technology, and the implementation of a choice from certain categories.

Protection of Children Participating in Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law: Issues of Compliance by Non-State Actors

Children enjoy legal protection under international humanitarian law and international human rights law. In situations of armed conflict, children are granted not only general protection as civilians, but special protection as children. Several legal provisions exist in the Geneva Conventions and its Additional Protocols, along with the Convention on the Rights of Child and its Second Optional Protocol on Children in Armed Conflicts. However, despite the current legal framework providing protective rights to children, there are serious issues of compliance by non-state actors, particularly in reference to inducting and using child soldiers. This highlights several legal challenges to international humanitarian law vis a vis the diminished protection of children taking direct part in hostilities. This article discusses the current legal regime protecting children in armed conflict, who take direct and indirect part in hostilities. Thereafter, an analysis is made of situations of international and non-international armed conflicts and the difference in protections accorded to these children, respectively. Lastly, an analysis is made of the compliance mechanisms that may be developed for non-state actors under international humanitarian law to prevent recruitment of children for taking direct or indirect part in hostilities. The issues of compliance by non-state actors and possible responses to such challenges are also addressed.

Revisiting the 2PN Pericenter Precession in View of Possible Future Measurements

At the second post-Newtonian (2PN) order, the secular pericenter precession ω ˙ 2 PN of either a full two-body system made of well-detached non-rotating monopole masses of comparable size and a restricted two-body system composed of a point particle orbiting a fixed central mass have been analytically computed so far with a variety of approaches. We offer our contribution by analytically computing ω ˙ 2 PN in a perturbative way with the method of variation of elliptical elements by explicitly calculating both the direct contribution due to the 2PN acceleration A 2 PN , and also an indirect part arising from the self-interaction of the 1PN acceleration A 1 PN in the orbital average accounting for the instantaneous shifts induced by A 1 PN itself. Explicit formulas are straightforwardly obtained for both the point particle and full two-body cases without recurring to simplifying assumptions on the eccentricity e. Two different numerical integrations of the equations of motion confirm our analytical results for both the direct and indirect precessions. The values of the resulting effects for Mercury and some binary pulsars are confronted with the present-day level of experimental accuracies in measuring/constraining their pericenter precessions. The supermassive binary black hole in the BL Lac object OJ 287 is considered as well. A comparison with some of the results appeared in the literature is made.

THE THEORY OF COLLISION-INDUCED ABSORPTION IN HYDROGEN AND DEUTERIUM

Collision-induced absorptions in the 1–0 vibrational band of hydrogen and of deuterium are calculated by considering interactions during binary collisions. The induced dipole moment, μ, of an interacting molecule-pair is derived by combining a moment, μa, resulting from overlap forces, with a moment, μq, due to the interactions of permanent molecular quadrupole moments. μa consists of two additive parts, an indirect part calculated by van Kranendonk and Bird (1951) and a direct part calculated in this paper. μq is calculated in two different ways: (a) theoretically and (b) semiempirically. Absorption coefficients are evaluated for temperatures 296 ° K. and 80 ° K. For H2 at 296 ° K. the total integrated coefficient obtained by using procedure (a) is 8.6% smaller and by using (b) is 8.2% larger than the experimental value. The experimental ratio of the coefficients of the Q and S branches is in much better agreement with (b) than (a). For T = 80 °K. the experimental value of the total integrated coefficient is only 61% of that calculated by (b). The good agreement between calculated and experimental values of absorption coefficients at room temperature suggests that at low temperatures the classical distribution function used in this paper must be replaced by the quantal pair distribution function. Experimental data for D2 are not available.

THE RELATION OF THE HYPOPHYSIS TO ANTIBODY PRODUCTION

An operative technique was evolved permitting successful partial hypophysectomy in guinea pigs. Such animals, when immunized to Bacillus typhosus, produced specific agglutinins in the same quantity and at the same rate as unoperated and operation controls immunized at the same time and by the same method. In guinea pigs previously immunized to Bacillus typhosus and hen red blood corpuscles partial hypophysectomy had no effect on the continued production and persistence of typhoid agglutinins, hemagglutinins, and hemolysins. In guinea pigs immunized to Bacillus typhosus both the continued ingestion and the intraperitoneal injection of the whole pituitary gland extract (Burroughs Wellcome) had no effect on the subsepuent agglutinin titers as compared to that of normal animals. The experiments would appear to show either that the hypophysis does not play an important direct or indirect part in the production of and persistence in the blood of typhoid agglutinins, hemagglutinins, and hemolysins, or that the amount of hypophysis left behind in the operation in order to maintain life is adequate also to exercise the degree of functional influence on these processes which the entire hypophysis conceivably exercises.