Haze, Hunger, Hesitation: Disaster Aid after the 1783 Lakagígar Eruption

The 1783-1784 Laki eruption was one of the most severe natural catastrophes to occur in Iceland in historical times (since 1140 years). Vegetation damage by sulphate aerosol and fluorine poisoning caused a massive decimation of livestock. The impact of fluorine poisoning and sulphate aerosol on human mortality is uncertain, but the loss of animals caused a famine which took many lives. The vulnerability of the Icelandic society to famine is discussed. 18th Century Iceland was a Danish dependency and, despite the abundance of fish in the surrounding waters, a subsistence farming community and thus highly dependent on livestock. On the other hand, the farming community possessed coping strategies which mitigated the impact of livestock loss. During the famine, the Danish government was in principle willing to provide relief. However, local authorities in Iceland were slow to ask for help, and did not dare to exploit the means at their disposal (e.g. the right to ban the export of Icelandic foodstuff) without consent from Copenhagen. The Danish officials in turn were unwilling to act decisively upon incomplete information. These two factors prevented timely measures. While 4.4 × 10^5kg of grain were provided for famine relief in summer 1784, the merchants exported 1.2 × 10^6kg of fish, which greatly aggravated the hunger in the second winter. The effects of this ‘natural’ catastrophe could therefore have been significantly reduced by efficient government.

Haze, Hunger, Hesitation: Disaster Aid after the 1783 Lakagígar Eruption

The 1783-1784 Lakagígar eruption was probably the most severe natural catastrophe to occur in Iceland. While contemporary records suggest that no or few human lives were lost directly due to the eruption, vegetation damage by acid rain and fluorine poisoning caused a massive decimation of livestock, which led to a famine lasting 1.5 years. Contagious diseases also took many lives, but may be an indirect result of hunger. 18th Century Iceland was a Danish dependency and a subsistence farming community highly vulnerable to famine. Development of the fisheries could have improved the situation, but this did not occur. Instead, Iceland remained trapped in a vicious circle of conservatism, poverty, and lack of technological means (seaworthy fishing boats) sustained by artificially low fish prices decreed by the Danish king. During the famine, the Danish government was in principle willing to provide relief. However, local authorities in Iceland were slow to ask for help, and did not dare to exploit the means at their disposal (e.g. the right to ban the export of Icelandic foodstuff) without consent from Copenhagen. The Danish officials in turn were unwilling to act decisively upon incomplete information. These two factors prevented timely measures. While 440,000kg of grain were provided for famine relief in summer 1784, the merchants exported 1,200,000kg of fish, which greatly aggravated the hunger in the second winter. The effects of this `natural' catastrophe could therefore have been significantly reduced by efficient government.

Forensic Aspects of Fluorine Poisoning

In medical literature, existing studies show the opportunity to use fluorine for one�s health. The presence of this substance in the normal composition of all tissues and organs of the human body as well as deficiencies highlighted under certain circumstances support this aspect. They show both the positive effects of fluorine, such as the role of fluorine in increased calcium storing in the bones and teeth, and the negative effects, for example inhibition of phosphatases, (enzymes used in many metabolic processes). The double effect also appears in the use of fluorine in treatments, because when overcoming a critical threshold for the body it may produce adverse effects, sometimes leading to death. The present article analyzes these effects, the primary purpose being to raise awareness and identify the reactions of fluorine on the body.