Reading: The Confluence of Vision and Language

The scientific study of reading has a rich history that spans disciplines from vision science to linguistics, psychology, cognitive neuroscience, neurology, and education. The study of reading can elucidate important general mechanisms in spatial vision, attentional control, object recognition, and perceptual learning, as well as the principles of plasticity and cortical topography. However, literacy also prompts the development of specific neural circuits to process a unique and artificial stimulus. In this review, we describe the sequence of operations that transforms visual features into language, how the key neural circuits are sculpted by experience during development, and what goes awry in children for whom learning to read is a struggle. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Vision Science, Volume 7 is September 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Artificial stimulus-response system capable of conscious response

A stimulus-response system and conscious response enable humans to respond effectively to environmental changes and external stimuli. This paper presents an artificial stimulus-response system that is inspired by human conscious response and is capable of emulating it. The system is composed of an artificial visual receptor, artificial synapse, artificial neuron circuits, and actuator. By incorporating these artificial nervous components, a series of conscious response processes that markedly reduces response time as a result of learning from repeated stimuli are demonstrated. The proposed artificial stimulus-response system offers the promise of a new research field that would aid the development of artificial intelligence–based organs for patients with neurological disorders.

Combination of oriented-plane curvature reproduction and squeeze film effect-based texture reproduction to simulate curved and textured surface

The finger skin contains a variety of receptors, which provide multiple tactile sensing channels. When a finger touches the surface of an object, people can simultaneously perceive curvature, texture, softness, temperature, and so on. However, in most of research activities, the designed haptic feedback devices can only focus on a certain channel. In this paper, the rendering of curved and periodic textured surfaces involving two channels, i.e., curvature and texture, was studied. Two psychophysical experiments were conducted to investigate whether the coupling of kinesthetic feedback of curvature and tactile feedback of texture could reproduce curved and textured surfaces with high fidelity. The results showed a deviation of the point of subjective equality values in terms of curvature and roughness, indicating that the curvature rendering and texture rendering have an impact on each other. Therefore, it is necessary to correct the bias when making virtual rendering. The influence of curvature on texture rendering is reduced by recalculating and adjusting the spatial period of the synthesized texture in real-time; the influence of texture on curvature rendering is eliminate by compensating the force difference between touch on physical strip and artificial stimulus.

Transitions from avoidance: Reinforcing competing behaviours reduces generalised avoidance in new contexts

Generalised avoidance behaviours are a common diagnostic feature of anxiety-related disorders and a barrier to affecting changes in anxiety during therapy. However, strategies to mitigate generalised avoidance are under-investigated. Even less attention is given to reducing the category-based generalisation of avoidance. We therefore investigated the potential of an operant-based approach. Specifically, it was examined whether reinforcing competing (non-avoidance) behaviours to threat-predictive cues would interfere with the expression of generalised avoidance. Using a matching-to-sample task, artificial stimulus categories were established using physically dissimilar nonsense shapes. A member of one category (conditioned stimulus; CS1) was then associated with an aversive outcome in an Acquisition context, unless an avoidance response was made. Next, competing behaviours were reinforced in response to the CS1 in new contexts. Finally, we tested for the generalisation of avoidance to another member of the stimulus category (generalisation stimulus; GS1) in both a Novel context and the Acquisition context. The selective generalisation of avoidance to GS1 was observed, but only in the Acquisition context. In the Novel context, the generalisation of avoidance to GSs was significantly reduced. A comparison group (Experiment 2), which did not learn any competing behaviours, avoided GS1 in both contexts. These findings suggest that reinforcing competing behavioural responses to threat-predictive cues can lead to reductions in generalised avoidance. This study is among the first study to demonstrate sustained reductions in generalised avoidance resulting from operant-based protocols, and the clinical and research implications are discussed.

Transitions from avoidance: Reinforcing competing behaviors reduces generalized avoidance in new contexts

Generalized avoidance behaviors are a common diagnostic feature of anxiety-related disorders and a barrier to affecting changes in anxiety during therapy. However, strategies to mitigate generalized avoidance are under-investigated. Even less attention is given to reducing the category-based generalization of avoidance. We therefore investigated the potential of an operant-based approach. Specifically, it was examined if reinforcing competing (non-avoidance) behaviors to threat-predictive cues would interfere with expression of generalized avoidance. Using a matching-to-sample task, artificial stimulus categories were established using physically dissimilar nonsense shapes. A member of one category (conditioned stimulus; CS1) was then associated with an aversive outcome in an Acquisition context, unless an avoidance response was made. Next, competing behaviors were reinforced in response to the CS1 in new contexts. Lastly, we tested for the generalization of avoidance to another member of the stimulus category (generalization stimulus; GS1) in both a Novel context and the Acquisition context. The selective generalization of avoidance to GS1 was observed, but only in the Acquisition context. In the Novel context, the generalization of avoidance to GSs was significantly reduced. A comparison group (Experiment 2), which did not learn any competing behaviors, avoided GS1 in both contexts. These findings suggest that reinforcing competing behavioral responses to threat-predictive cues can lead to reductions in generalized avoidance. This study is among the first study to demonstrate sustained reductions in generalized avoidance resulting from operant-based protocols, and the clinical and research implications are discussed.

The Strategy of Predator Evasion in Response to a Visual Looming Stimulus in Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Synopsis A diversity of animals survive encounters with predators by escaping from a looming visual stimulus. Despite the importance of this behavior, it is generally unclear how visual cues facilitate a prey’s survival from predation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to understand how the visual angle subtended on the eye of the prey by the predator affects the distance of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio) from predators. We performed experiments to measure the threshold visual angle and mathematically modeled the kinematics of predator and prey. We analyzed the responses to the artificial stimulus with a novel approach that calculated relationships between hypothetical values for a threshold-stimulus angle and the latency between stimulus and response. These relationships were verified against the kinematic responses of zebrafish to a live fish predator (Herichthys cyanoguttatus). The predictions of our model suggest that the measured threshold visual angle facilitates escape when the predator’s approach is slower than approximately twice the prey’s escape speed. These results demonstrate the capacity and limits to how the visual angle provides a prey with the means to escape a predator.

Modern Tools of Political Manipulation

The article proves that political manipulation is one of the conditions for the stable existence of political regimes and allows to control people and their consciousness. Tools and means of political manipulation are being continuously developed and improved, because they help political regimes function stably. Political manipulation is usually planned and organized, and can carry potential risks for the development of society as a whole. Political manipulators actively attract the media, which effectively distribute needed information and have the fullest impact on social consciousness. Peculiarities of political manipulation as a specific form of political influence, involve creating additional psychological levers of effective action in the process of the struggle for power. Political manipulators, with the help of various technologies of political manipulation, latently correct mass consciousness; include artificial stimulus (motivations) for action; redirect public moods and social activity in the direction they need. The author studies the current manifestations of political manipulation in the society: influence on public opinion; state authorities discredit; political advertising. To achieve success in the political struggle, the manipulator needs the support of society, which is guaranteed by the actions of mechanisms to influence public opinion. The author identifies and analyzes the following mechanisms of the means of political manipulation: language suggestion (speech influence), neuro-linguistic programming, and negative campaigning.

Variability in escape trajectory in the Trinidadian stream frog and two treefrogs at different life-history stages

Most studies investigating anuran jumping behaviour have examined the relationship between body size and parameters such as jump distance, velocity, and force; however, few have investigated jump trajectory. We constructed an arena to determine escape trajectories in relation to the direction of an artificial stimulus in the aromobatid Mannophryne trinitatis (Garman, 1888) and two treefrogs, Trachycephalus venulosus (Laurenti, 1768) and Hypsiboas geographicus (Spix, 1824). Three categories of M. trinitatis (i.e., tadpole-transporting males, nontransporting males, and females) and three ontogenetic stages of the treefrogs were compared. Mannophryne trinitatis escaped in a broadly predictable trajectory away from the stimulus, although jump trajectories were highly variable, suggesting a degree of unpredictability. No systematic differences were found between categories of M. trinitatis, adding to the findings of previous studies that larval transport incurs no measurable locomotor costs on antipredatory jumping behaviour with regards to jump angle and distance. The treefrogs showed similar patterns of escape trajectory and unpredictability. There were no consistent differences between life-history stages and no relationship between distance jumped and angular deviation. In M. trinitatis and H. geographicus, there was some evidence of bimodality in escape trajectory. The results are discussed in the context of other work on escape trajectories and the concept of “protean” defence strategies.