Francesco Maria Fiorentini (1603–1673): An Italian physician in ‘The Iron Century’

The aim of this paper is to shed light on the figure of Francesco Maria Fiorentini, a 17th-century physician from Lucca (Tuscany, Italy) and member of the Iatromechanical School, who distinguished himself for his role during the plague and the typhus epidemics that spread throughout Italy in the first half of that century. His work must be contextualized in a precise historical moment, which marked the gradual transition of Western medicine from the archaism of Galenic doctrine to that of the Iatromechanical School, when the foundations started to be laid for an experimental type of medicine that based its assumptions on the direct observation of phenomena concerning the human body. In this work, we mainly focus on the medical biography of Fiorentini and on the reasons why he enjoyed great social prestige among the most prominent figures of his time. However, Fiorentini should also be remembered as a multifaceted scholar, as evidenced by his numerous writings, which underline his erudition in disparate fields of knowledge.

Włoski medyk Johannes Baptista Montanus (1489–1551) – jego działalność w Padwie, metody diagnostyczne i terapeutyczne oraz spuścizna naukowa

Italian Physician Johannes Baptista Montanus (1489–1551) – His Activity in Padua, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Methods, and Scientific Legacy Using the sources written by Johannes Baptista Montanus (1489–1551), by his students, and the existing historiography, the article aims to determine what role this Italian physician played in the development of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, to what extent he is rightly considered the creator of clinical medicine, who were his mentors, and what were the methods of diagnosis and treatment he employed. Montanus was a professor at the University of Padua, and he has earned an ineffaceable place in the history of this university, where medicine was taught at a high level. At the same time, he worked as the head of St. Francis hospital. He was known for combining theoretical and practical knowledge in teaching at university. This method has become a permanent element of the teaching of medicine in Europe. He discussed the patient’s symptoms, then made a diagnosis, and recommended appropriate therapy directly at the patient’s bed, where the so-called consilia were held. This scheme of diagnostic and therapeutic procedure was named after him the ‘Collegium Montani’ and found many supporters among students who made notes while standing by the patient’s bed. The Consilia were later printed, and thus the treatments recommended and used by Montanus can be analyzed. Walenty Sierpiński of Lublin (also known as Valentinus Lublinus, b. 2nd half of the 16th century– d. before 1600) was among a large group of Montanus’s students. His merits include collecting, organizing and then publishing his master’s lectures. Considered to be Montanus’s most important work, Consultationum medicinalium Centuria prima, was published by Walenty of Lublin in Venice in 1554 (ex officina Erasmiana), and it contains one hundred pieces of medical advice given to one hundred patients. A few years later, a continuation of this work (Consultationum medicinalium Centuria secunda, ed. by Johannes Crato, Venice 1559) was published, containing further one hundred recommendations. Montanus was a promoter of physical examination as a method of obtaining knowledge about the patients’ health. He was regarded as a follower of Galen, Rhazes, and Avicenna and published critical studies on their treatment methods.

Cryptic Plasmodium chronic infections: was Maurizio Ascoli right?

Cryptic Plasmodium niches outside the liver possibly represent a major source of hypnozoite-unrelated recrudescences in malaria. Maurizio Ascoli, an Italian physician and scientist, suggested that infection was maintained as a result of the persistence of endoerythrocytic parasites in the circulatory bed of some internal organs, mainly the spleen. This would explain a proportion of the recurrences in patients, regardless of the Plasmodium species. Ascoli proposed a method that included the co-administration of adrenaline, in order to induce splenic contraction, and quinine to clear expelled forms in major vessels. Driven by controversy regarding safety and effectiveness, along with the introduction of new drugs, the Ascoli method was abandoned and mostly forgotten by the malaria research community. To date, however, the existence of cryptic parasites outside the liver is gaining supportive data. This work is a historical retrospective of cryptic malaria infections and the Ascoli method, highlighting key knowledge gaps regarding these possible parasite reservoirs.

The Reception of Maria Montessori’s Pedagogical Theory in Pre-School Education in Interwar Poland

The innovative tendency in pedagogy, called “new education”, which appeared in many European countries in the first half of the 20th century, aimed at reviving schooling, the conditions of education, and the process of learning; it also set a new role for the teacher and emphasized a new approach to the child. Maria Montessori (1870–1952), an Italian physician and educationalist, was one of the representatives of “new education”. Knowledge of the pedagogical theory developed by Montessori was spread in Poland through her books and the pedagogical-psychological literature of Polish educationalists, which referred to the Montessori educational concept. The purpose of this work is to present the reception of Montessori’s pedagogical theory in pre-school education in 1918–1939.

Stimulants: From Coca to Caffeine

Unlike the opiates, which are a rather homogeneous group, the drugs we call stimulants come in a variety of forms. In this chapter, we will devote most of our time to the classical stimulants, cocaine and the amphetamines, but will consider as well caffeine, nicotine, ephedrine, and modafinil. All are capable of enhancing mental and physical performance, and some produce distinctly pleasurable effects that sometimes lead to addiction. About the time that humans living in what is now South America started to draw on the walls of their caves, one among them discovered the unusual properties of the coca shrub. When the leaves were chewed, wondrous things happened to the chewer: Hunger and fatigue were replaced by feelings of strength and power; the world seemed not such a bad place to live. By the time Francisco Pizarro led his conquistadors into Peru early in the 16th century, coca leaf had found an exalted place in the Incan Empire. One legend has it that coca was brought from heaven to earth by Manco Capac, son of the Sun god and the Inca from whom the ruling class traced its lineage. (Interesting how often royalty has claimed divine origins.) The Spaniards developed no great respect for coca, regarding it as but another facet of a pagan people who had no claim on civilization. But the new rulers were nothing if not practical. Coca allowed native workers to be pushed beyond the normal bounds of physical endurance. More tin and silver could be brought from the mines with fewer workers fed less food. Coca leaf lost its status as a sacrament and a pleasure of the ruling class. It became a part of the internal economy of Spanish Peru, a means of enhancing productivity, and a contributor to the destruction of the Incan people and their civilization. It was inevitable that Europeans would become familiar with the effects of coca leaf both by their observation of native use and by personal experience. In 1859, an Italian physician named Paolo Mantegazza who had spent some time among the Peruvian natives put it this way.

História do Ensino de Histologia

Resumo O termo "histologia" surgiu pela primeira vez em 1819 num livro do autor anatomista e fisiologista alemão Karl Meyer, com a sua origem nos estudos microscópicos de estruturas biológicas descritas pelo médico italiano Marcello Malpighi no século XVII. A histologia é a ciência que estuda a organização dos tecidos do corpo e é uma componente fundamental da educação em medicina. Desde o seu início no século XVIII, a histologia progrediu de mãos dadas com os avanços na área da microscopia, das tecnologias microscópicas, incluindo a preparação de amostras biológicas, colorações e imunohistoquímica. Desde a formulação da teoria celular em 1839, as universidades de medicina iniciaram o ensino desta ciência em estreita conexão com a fisiologia. Em Estrasburgo, entre 1846 e 1871, foi desenvolvida e organizada uma escola de histofisiologia. O microscópio e o estudo dos tecidos foram considerados como uma abordagem fundamental para o progresso do conhecimento biológico e médico desde o século XIX até hoje. Atualmente, o uso de microscopia virtual é uma realidade aceite e muitas vezes integrada no ensino de histologia. Em comparação com os métodos tradicionais, a utilização do microscópio virtual nos novos curricula permite que as instituições de ensino em medicina lecionem o mesmo conteúdo programático poupando material, recursos e tempo. Palavras-chave: histologia; microscópio; ciência; ensino Abstract The term "histology" first appeared in a book of 1819 written by the German anatomist and physiologist Karl Meyer, tracing its origins to the microscopic studies of biological structures of the seventeenth century by the Italian physician Marcello Malpighi. Histology is the science that provides the adequate learning of the tissue organization of the body, and is a fundamental part of medical education. Since its beginning in the 18th century, the discipline of histology has progressed hand in hand with the advancements in microscopy and microscopic technologies, including techniques for the preparation of biological samples, staining and immunohistochemistry. Since cell theory was formulated in 1839, medical universities have given rise to the teaching of this science in close connection with physiology. Between 1846 and 1871 a histophysiological school was organized in Strasbourg. The microscope and the study of tissues were considered as a fundamental approach for the progress of biological and medical knowledge from the nineteenth century to the present day. Nowadays, the use of virtual microscopy is now an accepted and often integral part of teaching histology. Compared with traditional methods, the use of the virtual microscope in the new curricula allows medical institutions to teach the same programmatic content sparing material, resources and time. Keywords: histology; microscopy; science; teaching

Onyiuke Grading Scale: A Clinical Classification System for the Diagnosis and Management of Bertolotti Syndrome

INTRODUCTION Lumbosacral transitional vertebrae (LSTV) is a common anatomic variant of the spine, characterized by the formation of a pseudoarticulation between the transverse process of the lumbar vertebrae and sacrum or ilium. The altered biomechanics and instability of the spine have been implicated as a potential source of low back pain dubbed Bertolotti Syndrome, named for the Italian physician who initially reported such a rare condition. Traditionally, lumbosacral transitional vertebra have been subdivided into types I-IV based on the Castellvi radiographic classification system.1 However, identifying the type of LSTV in this way fails to consider these findings within the clinical context and provides no clinical relevance to the treatment of Bertolotti Syndrome. METHODS Patients presenting with back pain between 2011 and 2018 attributable to a lumbosacral transitional vertebra were identified retrospectively. Data was collected from these patients' charts regarding demographic information, clinical presentation, diagnostic imaging, treatment, and outcomes. Based on evaluation of these cases and review of the literature, a diagnostic-therapeutic algorithm is proposed. RESULTS Based on our experiences evaluating and treating these patients and review of the existing literature, we propose a clinical classification system for Bertolotti Syndrome, we proposed a 4-grade scale for patients with Bertolotti syndrome based upon location, severity, and characteristics of pain experienced due to LSTVs. CONCLUSION Based on our experience with the cases illustrated here, we recommend managing patients with LSTV based on our diagnostic-therapeutic algorithm. Moving forward, a larger prospective study with a larger patient cohort is needed to further validate the treatment paradigm.

CHRONICLING THE MEROVINGIANS IN HEBREW: THE EARLY MEDIEVAL CHAPTERS OF YOSEF HA-KOHEN'S DIVREI HAYAMIM

Yosef Ha-Kohen (1496–ca. 1575) was a Jewish Italian physician and intellectual who in 1554 published a chronicle in Hebrew titled Sefer Divrei Hayamim lemalkei Tzarfat ulemalkei Beit Otoman haTogar, or The Book of Histories of the Kings of France and of the Kings of Ottoman Turkey. It was, as its name suggests, a history told from the perspective of two nations, the French and the Turks. Ha-Kohen begins his narrative with a discussion of the legendary origins of the Franks and the history of their first royal dynasty, the Merovingians. This composition is unique among late medieval and early modern Jewish works of historiography for its universal scope, and even more so for its treatment of early medieval history. For this part of the work, Ha-Kohen relied extensively on non-Jewish works, which themselves relied on still earlier chronicles composed throughout the early Middle Ages. Ha-Kohen thus became a unique link in a long chain of chroniclers who worked and adopted Merovingian material to suit their authorial agendas. This article considers how the telling of Merovingian history was transformed in the process, especially as it was adapted for a sixteenth-century Jewish audience.

Rethinking Education: Montessori’s Approach

More than 100 years ago, an Italian physician began designing an education system with the expressed purpose of helping children thrive to their full potential, rather than pass tests. Psychology research is strongly supportive of the system’s underlying theoretical principles, and accumulating studies show that when the system is well implemented, children’s outcomes even on tests are superior to those obtained with business-as-usual school programs. Researchers are now examining whether these good outcomes are in part due to the educational method causing epigenetic effects (i.e., changes in gene expression).

‘Pinel of Istanbul’: Dr Luigi Mongeri (1815–82) and the birth of modern psychiatry in the Ottoman Empire

Italian physician/alienist Dr Luigi Mongeri (1815–82), who graduated from the School of Medicine in Pavia and worked as chief physician at Süleymaniye and Toptaşı Lunatic Asylums, introduced important reforms that shaped modern psychiatry in the Ottoman Empire. Because of his projects and practices he was likened to Philippe Pinel (1745–1826), and was called the ‘Pinel of Istanbul’ or ‘Pinel of the Turks’. This article aims to examine the birth of modern psychiatry in the Ottoman Empire, through the biography of Luigi Mongeri and his writings on insanity.