The Consideration of Bid‘a Concept according to Saudi and Iranian Scholars

The concept of innovation (bid'a) as a formative tool is used to create idiosyncratic nations depending on different scholars' interpretations, Wahhābīs in Saudi Arabia, and Shi'īs in Iran. Using the descriptive method throughout the paper, this article analyzes scholars' approaches towards bid'a concerning the sectarian interpretations and various legal methodologies. The extent of the relationship between the bid'a concept and the rulings related to the visitation of tombs, the practice of temporary marriage, and Nowrūz celebration will be the paper's primary focus. The interpretations and approaches of scholars towards bid'a have resulted in opposite solutions on these mentioned issues. The comparative conclusion aims to clarify the Saudi-Wahhābī and Iranian-Shi'ī scholars' principal attitudes towards the theoretical interpretation and practical application of the bid'a concept. The bid'a analysis attempts to introduce the operative purposes behind the rulings to answer which reasons impel the scholars functioning in these two countries from issuing the diametrically opposite views on controversial issues.

African American Urban School Principal Servant Leadership

The purpose of this chapter is to investigate the characteristics of African American school principals and the obstacles they experience on their path to the principalship. A secondary purpose, but very important as well, is to analyze critically the experiences of successful African American male principals to help inform the preparation of principals who lead organizations of diverse demographics. Investigating this area also contributes to the much-needed educational discourse of African American principal attitudes, beliefs, and life experiences of principals in education today, and how they are meeting the needs of a growing multicultural population. The principals are the primary units of analysis, and it is the intent of this chapter to delve into the lives of the participants to gain a better understanding of the barriers and obstacles they have to overcome to become principals.

Justin Martyr's Trypho

Justin Martyr's Dialogue with Trypho has been considered one of the basic documents for an understanding of the theological contacts and discussions between Christians and Jews in the second century. Several scholars have studied the Dialogue in an attempt to ascertain the main ideas, the fundamental questions, and the principal attitudes involved in such contacts. The inquiry, however, does not appear to have reached definitive conclusions. There has been a diversity of opinion due mainly to the complexity of the problems, to the ambiguity of the pertinent data, and to the theological presuppositions of the researchers. Specific questions like “How well did Justin know and represent his contemporary Judaism?” seem to be more and more, but not completely, settled. Others, however, such as the degree of friendliness or hostility between Jews and Christians displayed in the Dialogue, remain in a condition of fluidity.