The role of metaphors and metonymies in framing the transplantation discourse

This article studies figurative uses of metaphors and metonymies utilized to frame the discourse of transplantology. We assume a somewhat wider view of framing than is usually found in the literature and argue that framing effects can be observed on a cline stretching from the private to the institutional pole. We combine this approach with the findings of the prospect theory that distinguishes between gain-framing and loss-framing as two strategic choices in tackling an issue in discourse. The framing tools, as we show in our analysis of authentic materials, in order to be effective need to be adapted to the section of, or the point on, the cline occupied by a particular subtype of discourse. Although the focus in the cognitive linguistic literature is on how conceptual metaphors are employed in framing discourse, we point out that metonymies, interacting with these metaphors, can also play a very important role. The framing tools used in public campaign aimed at winning new organ donors are strategically mostly gain-framed, and as a rule globally based on the gift metaphor. It seems that the metaphorical use of gift as a global choice in institutional contexts is not very efficient since it is too general and vague to make discourse more persuasive at the personal level, as expected in the light of the exemplification theory. This metaphor is more effective when adapted accordingly, as we demonstrated on some campaigns supported by or based on metonymic presentation of various aspects stressing the quality of life after transplantation

Instagram as Exemplar: Examining the Presence and Likability of Subjects and Statistics in March Madness Posts

While many sport fans gravitate to new media, questions remain regarding what they are consuming. Specifically, this study addresses a nascent gap in sport communication research by identifying the presentation form and subject portrayals of 443 Instagram posts during 2018 college basketball tournaments and measuring subsequent likability of such depictions. Results yield 4 important findings. Primarily, in contrast to early exemplification research, evidence suggests that some audiences “like” base-rate information. In addition, while Instagram is known as a photo platform, posts in this population were most often videos, and memes were liked more than any other presentation form. Next, while this content analysis identifies an old problem in a new domain—that female athletes are shunned in favor of male athletes—it demonstrates that likability in this medium emerges as equal for male and female subjects and sports. Finally, related to subject demographics, findings demonstrated racial disparities and concerning statistics for likability of minority subjects. Implications for exemplification theory and social media producers in sport are discussed along with limitations and directions for future research in this burgeoning arena.

Don’t Sleep on It: An Examination of Storm Naming and Potential Heuristic Effects on Twitter

Humans often prefer representations that are cognitively easier to store, and these representations are easier to retrieve later to make judgments about events. Exemplification theory draws on evolutionary logic and argues that simple, iconic, concrete, and emotionally arousing depictions of events (exemplars) are favored and thus more likely to be stored and used than are abstract, inconsequential depictions or representations. This study examined exemplified aspects of storm warnings in a Twitter feed. A three-condition study was completed, and variables examined included storm severity, susceptibility, hazard, outrage, and willingness to change or engage in specific behaviors. Results suggest the possibility of a sleeper effect impacting perceptions of severity. Results are discussed in theoretical and practical applications along with the consideration of other theories to be applied to future research.

Virtual Exemplars in Health Promotion Campaigns

Virtual simulations allow individuals to concretely view the future negative health consequences of present dietary choices. Integrating exemplification theory with risk communication research, the effect of using virtual simulations to exemplify the health risks of soft drink consumption was assessed across 3 weeks. A three-group pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest design (N = 62) compared the effect of three channels of delivering health risk information – base-rate statistics, picture, and virtual simulation – embedded in a digital health promotion pamphlet. Three dimensions of risk perception (perceived likelihood, susceptibility, severity), involvement with the health issue, and soft drink consumption were measured across 3 weeks. Virtual exemplars were the most effective channel for increasing perceived likelihood, perceived susceptibility, involvement, and soft drink consumption over time. Exemplification did not affect perceived severity. The paper discusses the potential of virtual exemplars as a powerful tool in designing effective health messages.

An IDEA Model Analysis of Instructional Risk Communication in the Time of Ebola

The Ebola outbreak and its rapid spread throughout West Africa and other countries was a megacrisis that imposed numerous challenges to those communicating to nonscientific publics about the epidemic. This article examines the instructional risk messages offered in the days that followed the 2014 infection and death of Liberian national Thomas Eric Duncan in Dallas, Texas. More specifically, we apply the IDEA model for effective instructional risk and crisis communication embellished by exemplification theory to conduct a thematic analysis of messages offered locally (Dallas news stories and press releases), nationally (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Live Chat Twitter posts), and internationally (website content from the World Health Organization, the United Nations Children’s Fund, and Doctors Without Borders). Our conclusions reveal that the majority of messages offered from each organization privileged the element of explanation over internalization and action as well as negative over positive exemplification. On the basis of these conclusions, and informed by previous research, we propose a number of potential implications and recommendations for offering a balanced representation among internalization, explanation, and action as proposed in the IDEA model. We also suggest that positive exemplification could be used strategically to motivate receivers to attend to these messages (internalization), reduce potential misunderstandings (explanation), and take appropriate self-protective actions (action). Agency spokespersons and media reporters may find the conclusions and recommendations drawn from this analysis to be useful when crafting similar instructional risk preparedness and crisis response messages.

Exemplification Theory in Health and Risk Messaging

Humans often prefer representations that are cognitively easier to store, and such representations are easier to retrieve later to make judgments about the social world. Exemplification theory draws on physiological memory mechanisms and argues that simple, iconic, concrete, and emotionally arousing depictions of events (exemplars) are favored and thus more likely to be stored and used than are abstract, inconsequential depictions or representations. Inconsequential information or representations are forgotten because they are not processed as being essential for survival. Exemplified events vary on a continuum of how accurately they represent a larger occurrence of events. Through specific uses of pictures, quotes and other depictive strategies, concrete, iconic, and emotionally arousing information is often added to a story. Research has documented the strength of specific exemplars in creating inaccurate estimations of events and perceptions of severity and susceptibility. Moreover, in the presence of a risk, portrayals with exemplars have been shown to motivate individuals to intend to change behavior. Exemplification is a strong theory that is understudied and underutilized. The theory has strong explanatory, predictive, and organizing power, and it has application to phenomena in contexts such as media effects, persuasion, crisis and risk communication, health communication and public relations.

Differentiating Objective Sport Knowledge Versus Subjective Sport Fanship via a Test of Exemplification in Sport Media

Recognizing the need for a more nuanced measure of sport fanship, this study utilizes an experiment to better understand the construct of sport fanship, comparing a common sport fanship measure and an adapted, objective measure of sport knowledge. This experiment also extends exemplification theory into the novel context of sports media by examining how one individual difference—domain-specific knowledge and interest in the subject—influences perceptions formed through a common message type, a sports highlight reel. Exemplification effects in the form of exaggerated football plays did indeed alter perceptions of the athlete despite concrete sport statistics depicting the athlete modestly. Interestingly, while the two concepts were positively correlated, they did not act uniformly. High knowledge sports fans were less swayed by exaggerated sports highlight exemplars when compared to their low knowledge counterparts while high and low fans categorized by self-identified interest did not affect the perceptions of the on-screen athlete. Thus, this study contributes to current research by expanding exemplification theory and furthering the multidimensional operational understanding of sport fanship. Additional findings and future research directions are discussed.