Consumption of Carnivores by Wolves: A Worldwide Analysis of Patterns and Drivers

The occurrence of carnivore species in wolf diet has been overlooked and poorly studied despite the potential implications for wolf ecology and wildlife management. We conducted an extensive literature review, focusing on 120 wolf diet studies worldwide to assess global patterns of carnivore consumption by wolves and their ecological and human-related determinants. We used a total of 143 sampling sites with data on the consumption of carnivores by wolves. In total, 35 carnivore species were reported to be consumed by wolves, comprising members of all taxonomic carnivore families represented within the gray wolf range. The carnivores were mostly limited to occasional consumption (<5% of wolf diet) but could account for as much as 25% in some study areas. The most frequently consumed carnivore species were those with reported scavenging behavior, belonging to medium-sized generalist canids. Generalized linear model (GLM) analysis revealed that higher magnitudes of carnivore consumption were related to nonprotected areas as well as lower occurrences of wild ungulates, domestic ungulates, and small mammals in wolf diet, while higher numbers of consumed carnivore species were related to nonprotected areas with low vegetation productivity and lower occurrences of domestic ungulates and small mammals in wolf diet. Our results suggest that carnivore consumption by wolves is driven by altered ecosystems and human-dominated landscapes, where mesopredator densities are often increased and prey densities decreased, which intensify competition and the need for alternative food sources.

Predation by Himalayan Wolves: Understanding conflict, culture and co-existence amongst Indo-Tibetan community and large carnivores in High Himalaya

The wolves in the Hindukush-Himalayan region belong to one the most basal lineages within Canis lupus, yet little is known about its ecology, distribution, and behavior. To understand ecological aspects of wolves in this landscape, we predict wolf distribution, diet patterns and conflict perception in Spiti, India using field and remotely sensed information. We collected scats (n = 283) of canid species namely, Wolves, and other predators over a period of 3 years (2014-17) [66]. Wolf diet constituted mostly of domestic prey (79.02 %) while wild prey constituted to 17.80% of wolf diet over the three years. Village surveys recorded only 4% of the respondents confirmed wolf presence and perceived them as a possible threat to various livestock. Over, 98% of the respondents claimed that wolves were not safe for livestock and were averse to its presence. Marginal response curves depicted the model to have positive responses to animal location, LULC, village population, village density and wolf depredation. We found perceived presence/threat distribution wolves in the area significantly differed from actual ecological presence and distribution of wolves. The Himalayan wolf is an apex flagship predator in this fragile high altitude system, whose role is intricately linked with the ecology of the region. The use of such methods can aid in understanding such aspects as well as designing effective long-term conservation strategies for the species.

Raw feeding in dogs and cats

This article reviews the reasons for feeding domestic dogs and cats a diet based on raw meaty bones. Dogs, though able and willing to eat a wide variety of foods, exhibit numerous carnivorous traits, and are classified as carnivores. Dogs have been shown to prefer foods with nutrient profiles much closer to those of a wild wolf diet than those of kibbled diets, raising the possibility that dogs fed modern commercial diets, low in protein, and high in carbohydrate and additives, might face physiological and metabolic challenges. Cats are strict, obligate carnivores with characteristic dentition and a short digestive tract. A well-constructed raw food diet is high in protein, nutrient-rich, satiating, extremely palatable, and high in prebiotic ‘animal fibre’. Early domestic dogs were not ‘fed’ but allowed to forage for themselves like their wild ancestors. Today, most of our pets are fed on highly processed, dried diets, known commonly as ‘biscuit’ or ‘kibble’, barely recognisable from canine and feline ancestral diets. The intestinal microbiota has been found to vary significantly between raw-fed and non-raw-fed dogs. A species-appropriate, nutrient-rich diet, most closely resembling canine and feline ancestral diets, would seem a sensible option if our pets are to achieve optimal health. Feeding real, whole food consisting mainly of good quality raw meat on the bone, skin, offal, eggs and fish, is perhaps as close as we can come, in modern, Western society, to achieve this.

Wolf diet and livestock selection in central Greece

Understanding the feeding habits of wolves is essential for designing and implementing fundamental management processes across the range of the species. This is even more important within human-dominated areas, such as southern Europe, and more especially Greece. In this context, we analyzed 123 scat samples, collected between 2010 and 2012, from a mixed agricultural, forested and human-dominated area, centered on the municipality of Domokos in central continental Greece. We used standard laboratory procedures for scat analysis and calculated percentages of frequency of occurrence (FO%), average volume (AV%) and biomass index (BM%) to assess diet composition, and estimated prey selectivity. Domestic prey composed the bulk of wolf diet (FO%=73.5, AV%=84.8, BM%=97.2), wild ungulates were almost absent (FO%=0.5, AV%=0.8, BM%=1.2), whereas grass consumption was high in our area (FO%=19.5, AV%=11.0). The high dependence on livestock corroborates previous studies from Greece and other countries in southern Europe. Goat (FO%=46.0, AV%=61.2, BM%=64.9) was the main prey and was strongly selected, with sheep (FO%=11.5, AV%=9.0, BM%=11.2), pig carrion and cattle ranking behind (FO%=11.5, AV%=10.1, BM%=8.7 and FO%=4.5, AV%=4.5, BM%=12.4, respectively). No differences across seasons were detected, except from pig carrion, which increased during winter. The preference for goats is probably associated with its grazing behavior. High livestock consumption generally results in increased human-wolf conflict. Thus, substantial improvement of husbandry practices and restoration of wild ungulate populations are recommended to facilitate wolf-human coexistence in Greece.

Subsidies from anthropogenic resources alter diet, activity, and ranging behavior of an apex predator (Canis lupus)

Acquisition of resources can be costly and individuals are predicted to optimize foraging strategies to maximize net energy gain. Wolves (Canis lupus) would be expected to scavenge on subsidies from anthropogenic resources when these resources provide an energetic benefit over the capture of wild prey. We examined the effects of subsidies from anthropogenic resources in the form of livestock carcass dumps (LCDs) on wolf space use, activity, tortuosity, and diet in portions of North America’s northern hardwood/boreal ecosystem. We fitted 19 wolves with global positioning system collars during May–August of 2009–2011 and 2013–2015. Wolves with LCDs within their home ranges used areas adjacent to LCDs greater than non-LCD sites and had decreased home ranges and activity as compared to wolves without LCDs in their home ranges. Additionally, cattle comprised at least 22% of wolf diet from scavenging in areas with LCDs present as compared to no cattle in the diet of wolves without access to LCDs. Subsidies from anthropogenic resources in the form of LCDs can serve as attractants for wolves and alter wolf diet, activity, and ranging behavior. Apex predators may alter their behavior where subsidies from anthropogenic resources occur and management of these subsidies should be considered when attempting to reduce the impacts of humans on wolf behavior.