Spatio-temporal Pattern of Specialization of Sunbird-flower Networks on Mt. Cameroon

Differences in bird-flower interaction specialization across continents serve as a common example of evolutionary trajectory specificity. While New World hummingbird-flower networks have been subject to numerous studies and are considered highly specialized, our knowledge of network specialization for their Old World counterparts, sunbirds (Nectariniidae), is completely insufficient. A few studies from tropical Africa indicate that sunbird-flower networks are rather generalized. Unfortunately, these studies are limited to dry seasons and high elevations around the tree-line, the environments where also niche-based hypotheses often predict lower resource partitioning. In our study, we explore the specialization of sunbird-flower networks and their spatio-temporal variability on Mt. Cameroon (Cameroon). Using a combination of automatic video recording and personal observations, we constructed eight comprehensive sunbird-flower networks in four forest types occurring in different elevations and in both the dry and wet season. As reported by previous studies the montane forest plants, birds and whole networks were highly generalized. Nevertheless, we observed much higher specialization in forests in lower elevations. The wet season was also characterised by higher, but not significant, specialization. While less specialized flowering trees dominated in dry season networks, more specialized herbs and shrubs were visited during the wet season. Whereas our findings do not support the generally accepted assumption that Old World bird-flower networks are rather generalized, we need further studies to understand the differences in bird-flower specialization on individual continents.

Latin American Structuralism and Neo-structuralism

This chapter is devoted to Latin American structuralism. The chapter summarizes centre–periphery theory as stressing the co-evolution of technological capabilities and the pattern of specialization. The centre and periphery are two different sets of countries that differ markedly in terms of this co-evolution. Firstly, the periphery is a laggard region in terms of technological capabilities with respect to the centre. Secondly, to the extent that technology is a crucial determinant of international competitiveness, the asymmetry in technological capabilities (the technology gap) shapes the set of goods the periphery can competitively produce in an open economy. This set of goods constitutes the periphery’s pattern of specialization. Thirdly, causality goes in both directions: specialization affects the learning trajectory of the periphery because what economic agents learn depends on what they currently produce and on their accumulated experience in specific sectors and technologies. In this way, specialization has an impact of its own on the technology gap.

Patterns of Diversification and Specialization in International Trade

Changes in the composition of production refer not only to the structure of production but also the composition of exports. The structure of exports is the topic of this chapter. The point of departure for the chapter is the well-known U-curve pattern of specialization proposed by Imbs & Wacziarg (2003). The chapter is informed by technology gap theories of catch-up. Due to international technology transfer laggard economies can start catching up. In this process they will tend to diversify. The main aim of the chapter is to test whether the U-curve hypothesis is valid. It makes an interesting distinction between specialization within product groups and specialization between product groups. For this, the chapter develops a new measure of entropy, which decomposes within and between group degrees of specialization. A rising trend for total entropy is observed over the whole product range. The curve tends to flatten at higher income levels, but it does not decline suggesting that there is no U-curve.

Within-Industry Specialization and Global Market Power

Export price levels exhibit tremendous cross-national and spatial variation, even within narrowly defined industries. Standard theories attribute this variation to within-industry quality specialization. This paper argues that a significant portion of the export price variation is driven by rich and remote economies specializing in high-market power segments of industries. I also argue that this particular pattern of specialization (i) accounts for 30 percent of the overall gains from trade, and (ii) explains more than 37 percent of the observed cross-national income inequality. (JEL D43, F12, F13, F14, L15, L22, O19)

New Structuralism and the balance-of-payments constraint

Structuralists and Post-Keynesians share the perspective that in the long run economic growth is shaped by the income elasticity of exports and imports, and that such elasticities are a positive function of the degree of diversification and technological intensity of the pattern of specialization. Since the mid 1970s, New Structuralists began to stress the role of two sets of variables in driving the pattern of specialization: a stable and competitive real exchange rate, and the relative intensity of innovation and diffusion of technology in the center and periphery. In this paper we modify the balance-of-payments-constrained growth model to include these two sets of variables. The model provides a mechanism that ensures the validity of the original Thirlwall perspective, namely that adjustment to the balance-of-payments-constrained equilibrium takes place through changes in the rate of growth of aggregate demand rather than through changes in relative prices. In addition, it shows that a macroeconomic policy aimed at sustaining a competitive real exchange rate is a necessary complement to an active industrial policy for fostering international convergence.

A formal assessment of new-developmentalist theory and policy*

ABSTRACT We develop a formal framework that endogeneizes the productive structure of a small open peripheral economy as the outcome of a problem of technical choices. We subsequently examine the main theoretical theses and policy prescriptions of the New-Developmentalist approach to economic growth. We argue that: a) not only does the pattern of specialization depend on technical conditions, but also on income distribution; b) in an economy without rents, the level of the money wage-nominal exchange rate ratio is univocally determined once the rate of profits is known, and shows an inverse relationship with it; c) if differential rents are considered, the level of the rate of profits can be set independently of the money wage-exchange rate ratio; d) the level of the exchange rate that ensures normal profitability of the primary sector need not coincide with the current-account equilibrium rate; e) the effective exchange rate need not gravitate around any of these two former levels, which must be rather seen as minimum thresholds of the effective rate; f) the unpleasant distributive consequences of exchange-rate depreciation can be partially avoided by means of export duties that do not raise primary-commodities production costs.

Dynamics of Services Exports in India

The article examines the dynamics in specialization pattern of comparative advantage in services exports from India for the time period 2004–2013, while drawing a distinction between the pre- and the post-crisis trends. The analysis is based on a modified revealed symmetric comparative advantage index. It also employs the Galtonian regression and the Markovian transition matrices to study the distribution and intra-distribution dynamics of export patterns. The results reveal that India has a strong comparative advantage in modern services mainly business services and computer and information services. The findings suggest a stable but broadening pattern of specialization of India’s services exports. Further, the transition probabilities reveal that the chances of remaining in or switching to a state of comparative disadvantage are more pronounced than being or moving to a state of comparative advantage. Overall services exports exhibit high persistence in both the pre- and post-crisis period pointing towards a low impact of crisis on India’s services exports. JEL: C14, F14, L80

O BRASIL DIANTE DA ASCENSÃO CHINESA: OS RISCOS DA ESPECIALIZAÇÃO REGRESSIVA

This paper assesses how China’s rise as a global power has affected Latin America, in general, and Brazil, in particular. If the global economy will increasingly be Asian-centered and Sino-centered in the decades to come, we must ask which role will be reserved for Latin American countries. We argue that, despite the intentions of a re-orientation in its growth model, the response of the Chinese policymakers to the international financial crisis has reinforced, at least in the short and medium terms, the dependence on exports and investments. Considering the sluggish recovery in advanced economies, that strategy is likely to amplify Chinese pressures to access dynamic domestic markets in emerging countries. In this context, Latin America represents not only a source of natural resources but an increasingly important market for absorbing the Chinese manufactured products. As a consequence, countries such as Brazil, with more diversified production and international trade structures, might experience a regressive pattern of specialization, which might trigger protectionist reactions and other tensions on bilateral relations with China.