Developing hulled wheat-based cereal products with enhanced nutritional properties: emmer, einkorn and spelt

Hulled wheats (emmer, einkorn, and spelt) have low yields but are suitable for organic and low-input agriculture under marginal or high-stress conditions. However, data on the composition of hulled wheats, often also called ‘ancient wheats’ is still scarce, especially on bioactive components such as vitamins. This chapter shows that einkorn, emmer and spelt have some nutritional benefits compared to modern durum or common wheat varieties. Hulled wheats have superior properties in constituents such as protein, some minerals (e.g. calcium) and carotenoids (e.g. lutein). Einkorn might be an alternative for people suffering from wheat sensitivities due to improved gliadin digestibility and low abundance of amylase-trypsin inhibitors. A significant disadvantage is the lower content of total dietary fibres. The genetic diversity of hulled wheats can be used for breeding e.g. for Zn biofortification or reducing immunogenic potential.

Comparative Study on Kernel Quality and Chemical Composition of Ancient and Modern Wheat Species: Einkorn, Emmer, Spelt and Hard Red Spring Wheat

Hulled wheat species are often used as whole grains in processing, and have been attracting attention in the last 20 years in the food industry. Whole wheat flour of hulled wheat can be used in the food industry for value addition. This study was conducted to evaluate the kernel quality and chemical composition of the whole grain flour of hulled wheats as a preliminary approach to use these species for value addition. The experimental design was separate, randomized complete block designs for einkorn, emmer, and spelt, with four field replicates. According to the results, significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in kernel quality traits, such as test weight, 1000 kernel weight, and kernel hardness, compared to hard red spring wheat. The results of the chemical composition revealed that hulled wheats were characterized by significantly lower (p < 0.05) protein and higher (p < 0.05) crude fat contents compared to whole wheat flour of hard red spring wheat. Among hulled wheats, total dietary fiber content was highest in emmer, followed by einkorn and spelt. In conclusion, the whole wheat flour of einkorn, emmer, and spelt used in this study differ from hard red spring wheat in their kernel quality and chemical composition.

Plant use in Muslim Spain: Preliminary results from the medieval town of Madīnat Ilbīra

The paper presents preliminary results of archaeobotanical studies carried out at the Madīnat Ilbīra site in Spain. The functioning of the town, which was the capital of one of the administrative districts (kūras) of al- Andalus, falls in the period between the second half of the 9th century and the 11th century. However, the analysed soil samples were collected from archaeological contexts dated mostly to the last decades of the 10th century and to the 11th century. The samples yielded an interesting set of data about the preserved plant remains. Although the taxonomic diversity of the plants is not high, the analysis revealed remains of naked and hulled wheat (emmer wheat), millet, poppy seeds, perhaps peas, cucumber or melon, and grapevine. Although crop plants played an important role in the everyday diet of the town inhabitants, wild plants also were probably collected and used. The latter are represented in the analysed materials by, for example, wild strawberry, common mallow and common purslane. The preserved charcoal remains confirm the use of different species of wood as fuel.

THE CURRENT STATE OF ARCHAEOBOTANICAL STUDY IN UKRAINE

The territory of Ukraine was the first on the path of the Neolithic tribes to the territory of the East European Plain. These tribes brought here cultivated plants with the skills of their cultivation (hulled wheat, barley, legumes) from the center of origin, from Asia Minor through the Balkan Peninsula. N. I. Vavilov considered that the territory of Ukraine together with Moldova was one of the ancient places of farmers culture. He received confirmation of his assumption about the existence of crops of ancient hulled wheat in the closed mountainous regions of the Carpathians. In 1940 he found a hulled wheat Triticum dicoccum in the vicinity of the village of Putila near Chernivtsi. Recently thanks to modern research and radiocarbon dates on charred broomcorn millet grains Ukraine has a gateway through which millet from China, the birthplace of its origin, has spread to Europe. The earliest radiocarbon date (1631—1455 cal BC) in Europe is coming from the site Vinogradnyi Sad of Sabatynivka culture, Bronze Age. This date was received thanks to the European program «When and Where broomcorn millet arrived in Europe». Reports of much earlier occurrences of millet in Neolithic — Early Bronze Age (6th — early 3rd millennium BC) were almost entirely based on millet-looking impressions in pottery, daub and figurines. A recent re-examination of these impressions on figurines from the Usatovo culture with using a scanning electron microscope excluded millet grains as a source for some of the imprints. European researchers show great interest in archaeobotanical records of the crop from archaeological excavations of the territory of Ukraine. The use of modern research methods such as a scanning electron microscope, stable isotope evidence, modernized radiocarbon dating, chemical analysis of microparticles using a mass spectrometer, and analysis of DNA will allow a new look at the earliest obtained results.

The Energy and Environmental Potential of Waste from the Processing of Hulled Wheat Species

Organic farmers farming on arable land have often had, in addition to the cultivation of common species of cultivated crops (such as wheat, rye, triticale or potatoes), interest in the cultivation of marginal crops such as hulled wheat species (Einkorn, Emmer and Spelt wheat). The production of marginal cereals has seen significant developments in the European Union related to the development of the organic farming sector. Just the average annual organic production of spelt in the Czech Republic reached more than 9000 tons in 2018. The cultivation of these cereals requires post-harvest treatment in the special method of dehulling. The waste emerging after dehulling of spikelet (i.e., chaff) accounts for about 30% of the total amount of harvest and can be used as an alternative fuel material. When considering the energy utilization of this waste, it is also necessary to obtain information on the energy quality of the material, as well as environmental aspects linked to their life cycle. For evaluating the energy parameters, the higher and lower heating value, based on the elemental (CHNS) analysis, was determined. The environmental aspects were determinate according to the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology where the system boundary includes all the processes from cradle to farm gate, and the mass unit was chosen. The SimaPro v9.1.0.11 software and ReCiPe Midpoint (H) within the characterization model was used for the data expression. The results predict the energy potential of chaff about 50–90 TJ per year. The results of this study show that in some selected impact categories, 1 kg of chaff, as a potential fuel, represents a higher load on the environment than 1 kg of lignite, respectively potential energy gain (1 GJ) from the materials.

Hulled Wheat Productivity and Quality in Modern Agriculture Against Conventional Wheat Species

The objective of this study is to compare the yields and qualities of the hulled wheats emmer (Triticum dicoccum Schübl.) and spelt (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. spelta) with the commonly cultivated naked wheats common wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. vulgare) and durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.). Three years of field experiments were carried out from 2015 to 2017 in the Lubelskie province (Poland) on rendzina soils. The experimental results indicate that the hulled wheats, even when cultivated with advanced technology, produced lower yields compared to the common and durum wheats (reduced by 30–56%). In spite of their lower yields, emmer and spelt retained appropriate technological parameters. Higher ash, protein, and wet gluten yields were characteristic of the hulled wheats; however, the high gluten spread of emmer (13.3 mm) may limit its application as a raw material in some food processes. In summary, hulled wheat species can be recommended for modern agricultural production as an alternative source of high-quality materials for the agricultural and food industries.

Spelt vs common wheat: potential advantages and benefits

This work gives a brief review of existing studies that compares spelt and modern wheat from various aspects of quality including technological, nutritional, functional and safety performance. Spelt shows acceptable breadmaking performances. It can be used for bread, cookie, cracker and pasta manufacture with some adaptations in processing. Regarding nutritional quality, spelt is very similar to wheat and represents richer source of selenium, folates, phytosterols and alkilresorcinols than modern wheats. From the aspect of food safety, spelt shows advantages as being a hulled wheat.