Applications of Internet of Things and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle in Smart Agriculture: A Review

With the rapid advancement of technology and decline in human ability, technology has become a part of every aspect of our lives. Agriculture and irrigation are two domains in which man's potential may be exploited to its fullest. To commercialise in the industry, a variety of sensors and electronics devices are employed to keep prices down in a few domains. In order to save money and enhance the abilities of agricultural experts, UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) can be used for reconnaissance, pesticide and insecticide application, and bioprocessing mistake detection. When it comes to this application, both single-mode and multi-mode UAV systems will work just fine. On the other hand, this chapter identifies the challenges and limitations of IoT and UAVs connection in remote locations, demonstrating several use cases of smart agriculture and the advantages and applications of using IoT and UAVs in agriculture.

Dimethoate insecticide application seldom reduces silvertop incidence in grass seed fields on the Canadian Prairies

Many arthropods have been reported (but none confirmed) as causal agents of sterile seed heads in perennial grass seed fields, known as silvertop or white head. Field studies to identify the arthropods that cause silvertop were conducted in five perennial grass species at seven sites in Saskatchewan, Canada over several years. The effect timing of insecticide application in spring – early, mid or late – and of post-harvest residue management – mowing, close mowing with straw removed (scalping), and burning – on subsequent arthropod populations, silvertop incidence and seed yield were assessed. Samples of grass tillers and sweep net collections were taken regularly, and the arthropods collected were identified to family level and counted. Arthropod populations from sweep samples varied among sites and dates in number and taxon composition, but no arthropod assemblage was consistently associated with silvertop in any grass species. Thrips were the most numerous arthropods on tillers at all sites. Insecticide application often temporarily reduced arthropod populations, but reduced silvertop incidence at only 1 of 15 site-years, and increased seed yield at only 1 of 17 site-years. Scalping or burning did not reduce silvertop incidence but often increased healthy seed head numbers and seed yield relative to mowing, the standard treatment. The majority of Kentucky bluegrass fields had extremely low seed yields unrelated to silvertop or arthropod levels. This extensive study, across a range of grass species and management regimes, provides strong support for the conclusion based on previous work that arthropod pests are not the sole cause of silvertop.

Development of Economic Thresholds Toward Bollworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Management in Bt Cotton, and Assessment of the Benefits From Treating Bt Cotton With Insecticide

Widespread field-evolved resistance of bollworm [Helicoverpa zea (Boddie)] to Cry1 and Cry2 Bt proteins has threatened the utility of Bt cotton for managing bollworm. Consequently, foliar insecticide applications have been widely adopted to provide necessary additional control. Field experiments were conducted across the Mid-South and in Texas to devise economic thresholds for foliar insecticide applications targeting bollworm in cotton. Bt cotton technologies including TwinLink (TL; Cry1Ab+Cry2Ae), TwinLink Plus (TLP; Cry1Ab+Cry2Ae+Vip3Aa), Bollgard II (BG2; Cry1Ac+Cry2Ab), Bollgard 3 (BG3; Cry1Ac+Cry2Ab+Vip3Aa), WideStrike (WS; Cry1Ac+Cry1F), WideStrike 3 (WS3; Cry1Ac+Cry1F+Vip3Aa), and a non-Bt (NBT) variety were evaluated. Gain threshold, economic injury level, and economic thresholds were determined. A 6% fruiting form injury threshold was selected and compared with preventive treatments utilizing chlorantraniliprole. Additionally, the differences in yield from spraying bollworms was compared among Bt cotton technologies. The 6% fruiting form injury threshold resulted in a 25 and 75% reduction in insecticide applications relative to preventive sprays for WS and BG2, respectively. All Bt technologies tested in the current study exhibited a positive increase in yield from insecticide application. The frequency of yield increase from spraying WS was comparable to that of NBT. Significant yield increases due to insecticide application occurred less frequently in triple-gene Bt cotton. However, their frequencies were close to the dual-gene Bt cotton, except for WS. The results of our study suggest that 6% fruiting form injury is a viable threshold, and incorporating a vetted economic threshold into an Integrated Pest Management program targeting bollworm should improve the sustainability of cotton production.

Impact of IRS: Four-years of entomological surveillance of the Indian Visceral Leishmaniases elimination programme

Background In 2005, Bangladesh, India and Nepal agreed to eliminate visceral leishmaniasis (VL) as a public health problem. The approach to this was through improved case detection and treatment, and controlling transmission by the sand fly vector Phlebotomus argentipes, with indoor residual spraying (IRS) of insecticide. Initially, India applied DDT with stirrup pumps for IRS, however, this did not reduce transmission. After 2015 onwards, the pyrethroid alpha-cypermethrin was applied with compression pumps, and entomological surveillance was initiated in 2016. Methods Eight sentinel sites were established in the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. IRS coverage was monitored by household survey, quality of insecticide application was measured by HPLC, presence and abundance of the VL vector was monitored by CDC light traps, insecticide resistance was measured with WHO diagnostic assays and case incidence was determined from the VL case register KAMIS. Results Complete treatment of houses with IRS increased across all sites from 57% in 2016 to 70% of houses in 2019, rising to >80% if partial house IRS coverage is included (except West Bengal). The quality of insecticide application has improved compared to previous studies, average doses of insecticide on filters papers ranged from 1.52 times the target dose of 25mg/m2 alpha-cypermethrin in 2019 to 1.67 times in 2018. Resistance to DDT has continued to increase, but the vector was not resistant to carbamates, organophosphates or pyrethroids. The annual and seasonal abundance of P. argentipes declined between 2016 to 2019 with an overall infection rate of 0.03%. This was associated with a decline in VL incidence for the blocks represented by the sentinel sites from 1.16 per 10,000 population in 2016 to 0.51 per 10,000 in 2019. Conclusion Through effective case detection and management reducing the infection reservoirs for P. argentipes in the human population combined with IRS keeping P. argentipes abundance and infectivity low has reduced VL transmission. This combination of effective case management and vector control has now brought India within reach of the VL elimination targets.

The Effect of Insecticide Application on Plutella xylostella Linn. and its Parasitoid Diadegma sp.

Cabbage is one of the commodities that mostly cultivated in Indonesia, but the cabbage farmers often suffered losses because of pests' attack. The important pests on cabbage is Plutella xylostella. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness level of an insecticide with active ingredient carbaryl 85% in controlling P. xylostella which attacks cabbage and its impact on the parasitoid of Diadegma sp. This research uses a randomized block design with six treatments and four replications. The treatments were different concentrations of the insecticide carbaryl 85%. The testing on Diadegma sp. used two methods, directly and indirectly test (residual exposure). The carbaryl 85% was not effective in controlling P. xylostella, but the population was decreasing. The carbaryl 85% with the highest effect in reducing P. xylostella population was 3.0 g/l. The carbaryl 85% did not affect on the mortality of natural enemies (Diadegma sp. parasitoid) after direct and indirect test.

Pengendalian trips, Megalurothrips usitatus (Bagnall) pada tanaman kacang hijau (Vigna radiata): Pengaruh waktu tanam dan periode pengendalian

<p><em>Megalurothrips usitatus</em> (Bagnall), is the main pest on mung bean causing crop failures, thus the objective of this study was to determine the proper mung bean planting time and timing of thrips control, with minimal risk of yield loss. This experiment was conducted at Muneng Research Station, Probolinggo, East Java during dry season of 2015. This research was conducted using a split-plot in completely randomized design with planting time as the whole plot and pest control time treatment as a sub-plot with 2 repetitions. There were six planting time as the whole plot: first planting 20 May 2015, second planting 30 May 2015; third planting 9 June 2015; fourth planting 19 June 2015; fifth planting 29 June 2015, and sixth planting 9 July 2015. While, the pest control time treatment was done with an active agent fipronil insecticide as a sub-plot which consists of 4 treatments: (1) without insecticide treatment during vegetative and generative phase, (2) insecticide application during generative phase only, (3) insecticide application during vegetative phase only, and (4) full insecticide treatment during vegetative and generative phase. The results showed that the symptom of thrips attack began to appear 21 days after planting (DAP) by observing initial curling of trifoliate leaves. The thrips population per plant increases with increasing plant age. The highest populations of thrips were found on the second planting time (end of May) combined with no control during vegetative and generative phase, which is 17.8 individuals/plant at 18 DAP. The highest yield lost, was found on first planting time (90.2%) and second planting time (85.6%), if there is no control during vegetative and generative phase. It is indicated that in May become the appropriate time as a critical period of mung bean against thrips attack. From this study it can be concluded that to reduce the risk of high yield losses due to thrips attacks is to avoid from planting green beans in May. In thrips endemic areas, pest control at the beginning of plant growth and during the vegetative phase is a determining factor for the yield of mung bean. The season of “bediding” can be a warning sign for farmers before thrips infestation and to immediately take pest control measures<em>.</em></p>

Injeção de imidacloprido no controle do pulgão-preto-do-coqueiro

Trunk injection with Imidacloprid to control the palm aphid The injuries caused by the palm aphid, Cerataphis lataniae, on coconut plants may provoke economic losses. Thus, insecticide injection into the tree can provide protection and control against this pest. Our goal was to evaluate the efficiency of injection of imidacloprid on coconut trees to control the palm aphid. The experiment was carried out at the Lemos Maia experimental station, Ceplac, Una, Bahia, Brazil. The treatments applied were: 1) injection of 10 mL of the commercial product Provado® 200 SC (2 g i.a imidacloprid) in the stipe; 2) injection of 20 ml of Provado® 200 SC diluted in water (1 g i.a imidacloprid) and; 3) control (without insecticide application). The experiment was installed in a completely randomized design, with 15 replications, using leaf number 4 as samples. The parameters analyzed were number of aphids at 3 and 9 months after insecticide application and the number of leaflets/leaves with aphids at 26 months after application. The means were compared by the F and Tukey test at 5% probability level. All data were transformed into a log (x + 1). The aphid number and the number of leaflets per leaf infested with the aphid was higher in the control treatment. Thus, the application of imidacloprid via injection provided protection to coconut plants to the palm aphid, C. lataniae, until 26 months.

Modeling and simulation of the spatial population dynamics of the Aedes aegypti mosquito with an insecticide application

Background The Aedes aegypti mosquito is the primary vector for several diseases. Its control requires a better understanding of the mosquitoes’ live cycle, including the spatial dynamics. Several models address this issue. However, they rely on many hard to measure parameters. This work presents a model describing the spatial population dynamics of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes using partial differential equations (PDEs) relying on a few parameters. Methods We show how to estimate model parameter values from the experimental data found in the literature using concepts from dynamical systems, genetic algorithm optimization and partial differential equations. We show that our model reproduces some analytical formulas relating the carrying capacity coefficient to experimentally measurable quantities as the maximum number of mobile female mosquitoes, the maximum number of eggs, or the maximum number of larvae. As an application of the presented methodology, we replicate one field experiment numerically and investigate the effect of different frequencies in the insecticide application in the urban environment. Results The numerical results suggest that the insecticide application has a limited impact on the mosquitoes population and that the optimal application frequency is close to one week. Conclusions Models based on partial differential equations provide an efficient tool for simulating mosquitoes’ spatial population dynamics. The reduced model can reproduce such dynamics on a sufficiently large scale.