Punishment and Negative Reinforcement of Stuttering Using Electric Shock

1975 ◽  
Vol 18 (3) ◽  
pp. 478-490 ◽  
Author(s):  
Richard Martin ◽  
Kenneth St. Louis ◽  
Samuel Haroldson ◽  
Jon Hasbrouck
Keyword(s):  
Adult Male ◽  
Electric Shock ◽  
Negative Reinforcement ◽  
Base Rate ◽  
Choice Condition ◽  
Experimental Conditions ◽  
Shock Condition ◽  
Escape Condition

Five adult male stutterers were subjected to electric shock under three conditions. After stuttering frequency was stable in base rate, three subjects were (1) presented electric shock continuously, but the shock was terminated for five seconds contingent on each stuttering (escape); (2) not presented electric shock continuously, but were given a burst of shock contingent on each stuttering (punish); and (3) allowed to choose the shock condition they preferred. Two other subjects followed the same procedure, except that the order of the escape and punish conditions was reversed. The five subjects behaved differently in the various experimental conditions. For three subjects, the percentage of words stuttered changed very little in the escape condition, whereas two subjects' stuttering increased in escape. In the punish condition, the percentage of words stuttered changed very little for one subject, increased for two subjects and decreased for two subjects. Little change in stuttering behavior occurred in the preferred choice condition.

Prolactin release, oestrogens and proliferation of prolactin-secreting cells in the anterior pituitary gland of adult male rats

1986 ◽  
Vol 108 (3) ◽  
pp. 399-403 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. L. Pérez ◽  
G. A. Machiavelli ◽  
M. I. Romano ◽  
J. A. Burdman
Keyword(s):  
Cell Proliferation ◽  
Pituitary Gland ◽  
Adult Male ◽  
Anterior Pituitary ◽  
Pituitary Hormones ◽  
Anterior Pituitary Gland ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Serum Prolactin ◽  
Prolactin Release ◽  
Experimental Conditions

ABSTRACT Relationships among the release of prolactin, the effect of oestrogens and the proliferation of prolactin-secreting cells were studied under several experimental conditions. Administration of sulpiride or oestradiol released prolactin and stimulated cell proliferation in the anterior pituitary gland of adult male rats. Clomiphene completely abolished the rise in cell proliferation, but did not interfere with the sulpiride-induced release of prolactin. Treatment with oestradiol plus sulpiride significantly increased serum prolactin concentrations and the mitotic index compared with the sum of the stimulation produced by both drugs separately. Bromocriptine abolished the stimulatory effect of oestradiol on the serum prolactin concentration and on cell proliferation. In oestradiol- and/or sulpiride-treated rats, 80% of the cells in mitoses were lactotrophs. The remaining 20% did not stain with antisera against any of the pituitary hormones. The number of prolactin-secreting cells in the anterior pituitary gland significantly increased after the administration of oestradiol or sulpiride. The results demonstrate that treatment with sulpiride and/or oestradiol increases the proliferation and the number of lactotrophs in the anterior pituitary gland of the rat. J. Endocr. (1986) 108, 399–403

Central sites involved in lateral hypothalamus conditioned neural responses to acoustic cues in the rat

1987 ◽  
Vol 58 (5) ◽  
pp. 1123-1148 ◽  
Author(s):  
K. Nakamura ◽  
T. Ono ◽  
R. Tamura
Keyword(s):  
Electric Shock ◽  
Lateral Hypothalamus ◽  
Positive Reinforcement ◽  
Negative Reinforcement ◽  
Afferent Input ◽  
Procaine Hydrochloride ◽  
Neural Responses ◽  
Tail Pinch ◽  
Aversive Stimuli ◽  
Self Stimulation

1. Unit activity in the lateral hypothalamus (LHA) of the rat was recorded during discrimination learning of cue-tone stimuli (CTS) predicting glucose (CTS1+) or intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) (CTS2+) as positive reinforcement or electric shock (CTS1-) or tail pinch (CTS2-) as negative reinforcement. The same action, licking, was used as the behavioral response to all stimuli. Procaine hydrochloride, a local anesthetic, was microinjected into the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the amygdala (AM). LHA neuron responses and licking were analyzed to investigate the afferent input pathway(s) responsible for LHA neural responses to conditioning CTSs in positive reinforcement and to identify the central site involved in CTS learning. Although the animals were restrained, there was no respiratory, cardiac rate, or blood pressure evidence of stress. The headholder was specially designed in our laboratory to avoid pain or discomfort to the animal. The subjects would often, after the first few sessions, voluntarily enter into position in the apparatus, presumably to obtain the reward available during the experiments. 2. In positive reinforcement, a rat was rewarded by 5 microliters of glucose or ICSS when it licked a spout. The rat licked for glucose after CTS1+ or for ICSS after CTS2+. In negative reinforcement, an aversive stimulus, either electric shock or tail pinch, was applied if the rat did not lick the spout. The electric shock and tail pinch were maintained weak enough to produce an avoidance ratio less than 20-30%, averaged in all trials. The rat licked to avoid electric shock after CTS1- or tail pinch after CTS2-. 3. Of 271 LHA neurons analyzed, 202 (74.5%) responded to either or both rewarding and aversive stimuli. The number of neurons that responded to only rewarding stimuli was relatively large (105/271), and the number that responded similarly to both rewarding and aversive stimuli was small (29/271). The effects of both glucose and ICSS, and the effects of both electric shock and tail pinch, were usually similar in neurons analyzed for both rewarding and aversive stimulation. Of 271 neurons, 173 responded differentially to rewarding and aversive stimuli. 4. Neural and behavioral responses were recorded before, during, and after local anesthesia of the VTA in 15 rats and of the AM in 14 rats. Injections of 0.3-0.8 microliters of 5% procaine hydrochloride or 0.9% saline were made at a rate of 0.3 microliters/min through guide cannulae chronically implanted in the VTA and AM, ipsilateral to the recording and ICSS sites in 29 rats that self-stimulated.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

scholarly journals Animal model for progressive resistance exercise: a detailed description of model and its implications for basic research in exercise

2013 ◽  
Vol 19 (1) ◽  
pp. 178-184 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ricardo Cardoso Cassilhas ◽  
Ismair Teodoro Reis ◽  
Daniel Venâncio ◽  
Jansen Fernandes ◽  
Sérgio Tufik ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Resistance Training ◽  
Resistance Exercise ◽  
Electric Shock ◽  
Negative Reinforcement ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Progressive Resistance Training ◽  
Resistance Training Program ◽  
Experimental Group ◽  
Progressive Resistance Exercise ◽  
Progressive Resistance

The Several animal models have been proposed for resistance training. In addition, the results of these studies have been highly variable. Some of the studies have used negative reinforcement, electric shock or food deprivation to motivate the learning of the task. Features such as conditioning through electric shock may undermine the significance of the results or even prevent the model from being successfully executed. Due to these reasons, in this study we propose to use an adaptation of the vertical ladder climbing model for progressive resistance training in rats, albeit with a unique feature to ensure the homogeneity of the study groups: a period of adaptation to the apparatus without any negative reinforcement followed by a subsequent pairing of animals based on their ability to learn. The animals were distributed in the experimental group who were subjected to 8 weeks of a progressive resistance exercise protocol and the control group. After 8wks, the gastrocnemius, soleus, flexor digitorum longus (FDL), and plantaris muscles were removed and the cross-sectional area morphometry was obtened. The animals from experimental group showed hypertrophy [F(4, 15)=17,404, P < 0.001] for gastrocnemius [60% of hipertrophy; Control (2628,64 ± 348,50) versus Experimental (4207,77 ± 1256,52); ES=1.96; Power=0,86]; FDL [35% of hipertrophy; Control (2753,80 ± 359,54) versus Experimental (3711,84 ± 279,45); ES=2.99; Power=0.99] and plantaris [38% of hipertrophy; Control (2730,44 ± 320,56) versus Experimental (3767,30 ± 625,80); ES=2.19; Power=0.92], without modifications for soleus. All animals successfully completed the 8-week progressive resistance training program without any injuries, abandonment or death. Negative reinforcements such as electric shock were not required at any time in the experiment. In conclusion, we showed an adaptation of the previus model for progressive resistance training in rats. A period of adaptation to the apparatus without any negative reinforcement followed by a subsequent pairing of animals based on their ability to learn may be a alternative strategy for the original protocol. We also observed hypertrophy (gastrocnemius, FDL, and plantaris) showed the vality of this procolos for resistance exercise issues. The results of this study may be useful in basic/ applied neuroscience research and resistance exercise.

scholarly journals STUDIES ON THE INDUCTION OF TOLERANCE OF THE H-Y ANTIGEN IN MICE WITH NEONATAL SKIN GRAFTS

1968 ◽  
Vol 128 (1) ◽  
pp. 69-83 ◽  
Author(s):  
Willys K. Silvers
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Skin Graft ◽  
Adult Male ◽  
Previous History ◽  
Normal Male ◽  
Skin Grafts ◽  
Experimental Conditions ◽  
Adult Females ◽  
Neonatal Skin ◽  
Male Skin

In contrast to the uniform rejection of adult male skin isografts by C57BL/6 females, neonatal male skin isografts are frequently accepted. Moreover, 50% of all females which accept a neonatal male skin graft for 50 days accept a subsequent adult male skin graft as well. This ability of neonatal skin to produce tolerance has been investigated under a variety of experimental conditions. The results indicate: (a) Even when a newborn male skin graft is transplanted concomitantly with an adult graft, it can produce tolerance of the latter although it is less effective in this regard than when transplanted beforehand. (b) The continued exposure of the host to the newborn graft is vitally important in maintaining the unresponsive state; and most females deprived of these grafts for 50 days manifest an immune response when challenged with adult male skin. (c) Newborn male skin isografts raised on adult females are not as antigenic as normal male skin grafts. (d) Occasionally, even a presensitized female can be rendered tolerant by grafting with neonatal male skin. (e) Neonatal male skin grafts are not accepted when transplanted to the spleens of adult females although they may occasionally induce tolerance of a subsequent orthotopic adult male skin graft. The failure of these intrasplenic grafts to survive can be attributed at least partly to their small size since orthotopic grafts of comparable size usually do not survive. (f) Females bearing neonatal male skin grafts are not perceptible cellular chimeras. Because the unresponsive condition induced with neonatal skin is similar to that which results from multiparity, this latter condition has also received attention. In this regard it has been established that unlike the removal of a neonatal male skin isograft, the delayed grafting of isolated females with a previous history of multiparity does not result in many of them manifesting what may be considered an immune response. However, this delay in grafting does seem to impair the tolerance multiparity produces. The results are discussed in relation to other methods of producing tolerance in adult animals.

Programmed Generalization of Dress Efficiency across Settings for a Severely Disturbed, Autistic Child

1983 ◽  
Vol 53 (3) ◽  
pp. 871-879 ◽  
Author(s):  
John W. Fantuzzo ◽  
Craig S. Smith
Keyword(s):  
Autistic Child ◽  
Negative Reinforcement ◽  
Group Home ◽  
Community Based ◽  
Experimental Conditions ◽  
Home Setting ◽  
Primary Teaching ◽  
Natural Home ◽  
Withdrawal Design ◽  
Reinforcement Procedure

A seriously disturbed, autistic child residing in a community-based group home was studied. The primary objectives were to (1) bring deficient behavior under control in the group home setting, (2) train for generalization of acquired control to the natural home setting, and (3) shape the treatment program to fit the response expectations of the parents in the natural home. Efficiency in dressing was the targeted behavior, determined as the percentage of clothing the child had put on within a specified time limit. Effectiveness of the strategies were evaluated by using an ABAB withdrawal design to assure control and subsequent experimental conditions to program sequentially for generalization of the treatment effect to other staff and parents in the natural home setting. The primary teaching parent established clear control over dress efficiency by utilizing token reinforcers. This control was transferred effectively to other staff and parents in both group home and natural home setting. A negative reinforcement procedure was added to the token intervention to reduce dressing time effectively to match the parents' expectations for the child's dressing in the natural home setting.

AN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF OESTROGEN ON THE THYROID GLAND OF CASTRATED ADULT MALE RATS

1968 ◽  
Vol 40 (4) ◽  
pp. 397-408 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. F. BITHELL ◽  
K. BROWN-GRANT
Keyword(s):  
Thyroid Gland ◽  
Rate Constant ◽  
Adult Male ◽  
Time Course ◽  
Hormone Secretion ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Male Rat ◽  
Exit Rate ◽  
Experimental Conditions

SUMMARY The uptake of 131I by the thyroid gland of the castrated adult male rat is increased 24 hr. and is maximal 48 hr. after the injection of a single dose of 50 μg. oestradiol. The response is not dose-dependent between 25 and 1600 μg. The thyroid:serum (T:S) concentration ratio for 131I is also increased by oestradiol with a time-course similar to the changes in uptake, but release of 131I-labelled hormone from the gland in vivo and radioactive phosphate uptake were not affected. Analysis of the kinetics of 131I accumulation by the blocked gland show that the effects on 131I uptake and T:S ratio were due to an increase in the clearance rate with a possible associated decrease in the exit rate constant for iodide from the gland to the blood. Under the conditions of these experiments, the effects of oestradiol are not consistent with their being produced by an increase in pituitary thyrotrophic hormone secretion; a direct action on the gland appears likely. These conclusions apply solely to the experimental conditions described here and do not provide the basis for any generalization about the action of oestrogens on the thyroid gland. The method of analysis developed for the estimation of the unilateral clearance constant and the exit rate constant, together with their standard deviations, is presented in an appendix.

scholarly journals The More I Can Choose, The More I Am Disappointed: The “Illusion of Control” in Children’s Decision-Making

2017 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 55-60 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ilaria Castelli ◽  
Davide Massaro ◽  
Alan G. Sanfey ◽  
Antonella Marchetti
Keyword(s):  
Decision Making ◽  
Emotional State ◽  
Emotional Experience ◽  
Sense Of Agency ◽  
Illusion Of Control ◽  
Choice Condition ◽  
Experimental Conditions ◽  
Before And After ◽  
The One ◽  
Age Range

Background: Decision making is a complex psychological process driven by emotions. Among the most unpleasant ones are the situations when the obtained outcome is not the one expected. This emotional experience is influenced by sense of agency, i.e. the feeling that we voluntarily control our actions and, through them, events in the world. Negative counterfactual emotions as disappointment have been marginally analyzed in children’s decision-making, and the study of children’s sense of agency could help to understand them. Objective: To evaluate during childhood the valence of disappointment in decision making in relation to the possibility of choosing or not. Method: 107 children (age range 7-10 years) rated their emotions before and after discovering the outcome, in two experimental conditions: choice condition, where the child could decide which of the two remaining tickets to choose in order to win some candies, and no choice condition, where the child could not decide as only one ticket was left. Results: The self-attribution of a positive emotional state was significantly higher in the choice condition than in the no choice condition, so the possibility to pick up the ticket made children happier in general, by promoting an “illusion of control”, which is absent in the no choice condition. Then, after discovering the bad outcome, the emotions collapse, settling at substantially similar values. Conclusion: Children have experienced a sense of agency for their choice, thus leading to an illusion of control for the decision process and to the so-called “wishful thinking”.

Noninstrumental Punishment and Shock Intensity in Observational Learning

1968 ◽  
Vol 27 (1) ◽  
pp. 35-43
Author(s):  
Kenneth D. Craig
Keyword(s):  
Factorial Design ◽  
Shock Intensity ◽  
Electric Shock ◽  
Observational Learning ◽  
Negative Reinforcement ◽  
Model Errors ◽  
Mild Punishment

It was hypothesized that direct negative reinforcement to observers, solely contingent upon errors in a model's behavior, would facilitate or interfere with the observer's subsequent efforts to learn the task as a function of intensity of punishment (electric shock). 80 Ss were run in a factorial design varying shock intensity, the number of model errors and shock contingency. The task was a complex temporal maze which explicitly required the learning of a series of correct switch selections and implicitly required avoidance of punished switches. The findings indicated that relatively severe noninstrumental punishment disrupted vicarious acquisition of the task insofar as avoidance of punished decisions was concerned. The effects were independent of whether the shock was contingent or noncontingent. Marginal support was found for the contention that mild punishment would facilitate performance beyond the level to which no punishment would influence performance.

scholarly journals Preprint: Alcohol's effects during uncertain and uncontrollable stressors in the laboratory

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel E. Bradford ◽  
Jack Michael Shireman ◽  
Sarah June Kittleson Sant'Ana ◽  
Gaylen Fronk ◽  
Susan E. Wanta (Schneck) ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Alcohol Use ◽  
Electric Shock ◽  
Stress Reactivity ◽  
Negative Reinforcement ◽  
Community Sample ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Chronic Alcohol ◽  
Affective Components ◽  
Negative Impacts ◽  
Startle Potentiation

Alcohol’s effects on reactivity to stressors depend on the nature of the stressor and the reactivity being assessed. Research identifying characteristics of stressors that modulate reactivity and clarifies the neurobehavioral, cognitive, and affective components of this reactivity may help prevent, reduce or treat the negative impacts of acute and chronic alcohol use with implications for other psychopathology involving maladaptive reactivity to stressors. We used a novel, multi-measure, cued electric shock stressor paradigm in a greater university community sample of adult recreational drinkers to test how alcohol (N=64), compared to No-alcohol (N=64), affects reactivity to stressors that vary in both their perceived certainty and controllability. Preregistered analyses suggested alcohol significantly dampened subjective anxiety (self-report) and defensive reactivity (startle potentiation) more during uncertain than during certain stressors regardless of controllability, suggesting that stressor uncertainty —but not uncontrollability— may be sufficient to enhance alcohol’s stress reactivity dampening and thus negative reinforcement potential.

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