Trauma and Its Sequelae in Children and Adolescents

The most current research on trauma and child development demonstrates that there are significant risk factors for school success. At the same time, resilience and protective factors help other children overcome these obstacles. Chapter 2 explores the effects of trauma on children and adolescents. Data from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study, as well as other academic and epidemiological studies, are used to address the negative impact of traumatic experiences on child development. The neurobiology of trauma is explored along with other bio-psycho-social-spiritual effects of abuse, neglect, and other adverse experiences affecting children in the United States. Internalizing and externalizing disorders present in children who experience abuse are also addressed.

Introduction

Chapter 1 explains the basic assumption of the book: that school social workers are in a position to provide leadership, knowledge, and skills to create trauma-informed schools and foster resilience in schoolchildren. Trauma-informed schools aim to address students’ dysfunctional academic and behavioral performance driven by affective and physiological arousal. The correlation between high rates of trauma exposure and poor academic performance is established in the scholarly literature, as is the need for trauma-informed schools and communities. However, researchers are now finding negative effects on school outcomes for children who have not directly experienced trauma, but whose classmates have. This means that all children benefit from trauma-informed schools. School social workers are in a prime position to prevent and address trauma, and this book provides current knowledge and concrete skills to guide development of trauma-informed schools, helping students succeed in school.

Evaluating Trauma-Informed School Social Work

Most school administrators and teachers agree that they want to create learning environments that are safe for all children. However, recognizing that some dynamics within the school environment can feel unsafe to children who have experienced trauma, and changing them, is another matter. Uniform standards for creating trauma-informed environments and metrics for evaluating their success are currently lacking in the fields of education and social work. Chapter 8 provides a program evaluation strategy for trauma-informed school social workers to utilize in determining the success of their programs and to adapt programs as needed based on outcomes. The aim is to build and expand the literature on empirically supported and evidence-based practices in school settings. Logic models are presented, and resources for evaluating trauma-informed schools are provided.

The Impact of Trauma on Learning

Research shows that children and adolescents who experience abuse and neglect have lower learning outcomes, higher rates of learning difficulties, and higher rates of mental health disorders and behavioral challenges than children without these traumatic experiences. Chapter 3 explores some of the common social, emotional, behavioral, and academic issues seen in children who experience trauma. Information to help school social workers with the process of differential diagnosis and differentiation among symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and the cognitive and intellectual issues that require special education is provided. Information on epigenetics is also explored to connect the biological, psychological, and social domains in assessing children and adolescents.

Evidence-Supported, Trauma-Focused Interventions

Providing trauma-informed interventions in a school-based setting is helpful because parents are often unable to get their children to service providers in the community. School social workers can help children heal from trauma through the provision of a number of trauma-sensitive interventions. Chapter 6 offers an overview of some current, empirically supported interventions for use in direct practice with children and adolescents in school settings. The chapter reviews the Attachment, Self-Regulation, and Competency (ARC) framework; Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) for children; Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (CBITS) group intervention; and Structured Psychotherapy for Adolescents Responding to Chronic Stress (SPARCS) group intervention for older adolescents. Case examples are provided to demonstrate how these interventions are used in practice, and resources for information and training on the interventions are listed.

The Ten Principles of Trauma-Informed Services and Application to School Environments

For a school to be considered trauma-informed, the services and care must be provided in the context of an organization-wide approach grounded in an understanding of trauma and its consequences, with a focus on strengths, healing, and resilience. This requires a shift in the questions that are asked about children who have trouble learning or who interrupt the learning of others. Instead of asking a child, “what’s wrong with you?” the question becomes, “what happened to you?” Chapter 5 addresses the ten principles of trauma-informed services and delves into ways school social workers can create trauma-informed environments in educational settings to prevent children from being triggered and experiencing trauma in schools. Information and resources on self-care and vicarious trauma for school personnel are provided. The connection between culture and trauma is also explored.

Engaging Teachers, Families, and Kids in Creating Trauma-Informed School Environments

Chapter 7 explores the essential framework for creating a customized trauma-informed model for schools that engages all stakeholders, including children, parents, communities, teachers, and school administrators, in this paradigm shift. A multitiered approach that includes the four basic assumptions of trauma-informed care is presented, and models of trauma-informed schools are reviewed. Lessons learned from other areas of social work practice, such as child welfare and mental health, are included as well. Case examples of implementation in different school settings demonstrate how to implement the strategies and how the strategies can affect children. Finally, resources for implementation are provided.

Creating Safe Environments for Traumatized Children in Schools

Exposure to traumatic events in childhood and adolescence can have lasting negative social, emotional, and educational effects. For schools, or any environment that serves children, to be truly trauma-informed, they must address three crucial areas: safety, connection, and emotional and behavioral regulation. Chapter 4 explores these three areas as the foundational pillars of a trauma-informed structure. Each area is explored, along with examples of how they can be created in a school environment. Concrete examples of safe behavior are provided, as are examples of classroom triggers and guidance for helping children regulate emotions in the classroom. Finally, key information on identifying early risk factors for bullying behavior is included.