Paramilitarism’s Long Twentieth Century

How did paramilitarism develop into the modern age? The twentieth century has seen forms of paramilitarism ranging from the Freikorps in Germany early on in the century, to the Sudanese Janjaweed militias a century later, and a myriad of armed groups in between. Although these militias all originated under differing conditions and in different societies, their functions, logics, and dynamics demonstrate compelling similarities and instructive differences. This chapter traces the historical context of modern paramilitarism by developing an explicitly global review of these scenarios. The chapter begins with a short overview of paramilitarism in the first half of the twentieth century, before it moves on to the postwar era and looks at the construction of Soviet-led paramilitary infrastructures by the new communist regimes in Eastern Europe, and the US-supported paramilitarization of Latin America in the same period. Paramilitary units also appeared in several European conflicts in the 1990s and committed widespread violence against civilians. Although paramilitarism operated differently in various international political, historical, and ideological contexts in this period, there were both structural and phenomenological similarities between the cases.

Conclusion

The conclusion of the book opens with an Iraqi epilogue on the ways in which paramilitarism has been a prominent feature of state-building in postcolonial Iraq, especially after the US invasion of 2003, when militias became a daily fact of life. The chapter discusses the latest incarnation of paramilitarism in Iraq, the Popular Mobilization Forces (al-Hashd al-Shaabi), which mobilized against the Islamic State in 2014 and became immensely powerful, and shows that paramilitarism is here to stay. The chapter continues with a theoretical wrap-up of paramilitarism and state formation, and finally comments on the future of paramilitarism and the challenges it poses to international order and security.

Organized Crime, the State, and Paramilitarism

How are paramilitarism and crime related to each other? Empirical studies of paramilitarism make abundantly clear that (organized) crime plays an important role in paramilitarism: the trade in illicit commodities and services and the fact that criminal gangs operate in secrecy are two phenomena that are closely related to paramilitary activity. The influences seem to run both ways: criminals benefit from paramilitarism, and paramilitarism often engenders crime. In many examples, entire organized crime structures have collided with states and paramilitary units. This chapter offers a deeper look at the relationships between paramilitarism and crime. It looks at how criminal organizations are coveted by states if the tasks at hand necessitate the need for trust that characterizes interpersonal relationships within criminal groups. The relationship is mutually beneficial, because it allows criminal groups to achieve a form of respectability, preserve their assets, and develop their activities by influencing law-making and extending their network. The chapter examines these shared interests and trade-offs, discusses organized crime in peace and wartime, and draws several paramilitary-criminal profiles of those who pursued not only wealth and private interests, but also political power.

The Organization of Paramilitarism

How is paramilitary violence organized? Many studies of violent conflicts have demonstrated the central role of paramilitaries in the perpetration of violence against civilians. The organization of the violence is a crucial analytical category to be examined. Mass violence is often carried out according to clear divisions of labor: between the civil and military wings of the state, but also crucially between military and paramilitary groups. This chapter examines how states spawn and deploy paramilitary units. It does so by approaching paramilitarism from the perspective of the parastate: the complex interaction between security agencies, political parties, and communities that constitute the sociological infrastructure behind paramilitarism. The chapter analyzes how otherwise neutral and technocratic institutions, organizations, and agencies have collaborated in creating or condoning paramilitary forces. The chapter also discusses the violence that paramilitaries have committed, through a comparison of three massacres: the Bahia Portete massacre in Colombia (2004), the Cizre massacre in Turkey (1992), and the Trnovo massacre in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1995). The chapter closes with a discussion of a key element of paramilitarism: plausible deniability.

Introduction

What is paramilitarism? This introductory chapter engages with the scholarship on paramilitarism, conceptualizes the phenomenon, and clarifies the book’s approach. It opens with a prologue on the Syrian paramilitary criminal Suleiman al-Assad, the president’s nephew, who committed a murder in broad daylight in the city of Latakia and enjoyed impunity by hiding behind his paramilitary group. The chapter identifies areas in the research field that require development and suggests how to bridge the gaps between different literatures. In this book, paramilitarism is defined as clandestine, irregular, pro-state armed groups that carry out acts of violence against clearly defined civilian individuals or groups. The range of state involvement extends on a spectrum from spontaneous vigilantism to fully accountable special operatives. Paramilitarism has great importance for understanding the processes of violence that are played out during civil wars, counter-insurgency operations, and massacres including genocide. The chapter approaches paramilitarism from the perspective of three relevant forces: historical legacies, organized crime, and institutional relationships.