4. In the service of the faith

Ferdinand II’s reign is regarded as a turning point in Habsburg history. He rebuilt Habsburg power in Central Europe and changed decisively the region’s religious and political complexion. He restored Catholicism to a large part of his dominions and broke the power of the diets and nobility in the Austrian and Bohemian lands. ‘In the service of the faith: 17th and 18th centuries’ outlines his rule and the work of his immediate successors. It also describes the ‘Thirty Years War’ (1618–48), the Peace of Westphalia that ended the conflict, and the end of the Habsburgs’ global empire with the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700.

2. The imperial vision

‘The imperial vision: 11th to 16th century’ describes the efforts of key Habsburgs—such as Rudolf, Rudolf IV, Frederick III, and Maximilian—to expand their empire, sometimes under false pretences. By forging important documents, Rudolf IV gave his predecessors a pedigree that went back to classical Rome. Amplified by Frederick III and Maximilian I, an intertwined imperial and dynastic mystique made it hard to conceive of any other dynasty except the Habsburgs holding the office of emperor. The fight between Catholicism and Lutheranism under the rule of Charles V and the defence of Europe against the Turks are also described.

7. World war and dissolution

International politics in the later 19th and early 20th centuries was dominated by the ‘Eastern Question’: the legacy of the failing Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. ‘World war and dissolution: 20th century’ considers issues that led to the First World War, including the murder of Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, June 1914. To withstand the Russians, the Habsburg armies increasingly depended on German reinforcements. By passing strategic command of its forces to Wilhelm II in 1916, the Habsburg Empire’s fate was sealed. Franz Joseph’s nephew Karl was to be the last emperor. A final section gives a historical overview, asking whether the dissolution of the Habsburg Empire was inevitable.

1. Dynasties and empires; titles and peoples

After the house of Windsor, the Habsburgs are the best-known dynasty in Europe. Their history is tied up with most European countries. ‘Dynasties and empires; titles and people’ outlines the origins of the Habsburgs and describes the building of their empire through the acquisition of lands, kingdoms, and titles, either by war or by marriage. The earliest known Habsburg was Radbot (c.985–1045), who built Castle Habsburg in the Swiss Aargau that was, for several centuries, the principal seat of the family. The successful marriage schemes of Maximilian (Holy Roman Emperor from 1508) ensured the spread of the Habsburgs through most of Europe and into the New World.

5. Enlightenment and reaction

‘Enlightenment and reaction: 18th and 19th centuries’ describes the reigns of Charles VI (1711–40), Maria Theresa (1740–80), Joseph II (1780–90), Leopold II, and Francis. It outlines the practice of ‘cameralism’, or ‘treasury science’, which was complemented by the new philosophy of natural law that, by the 18th century, dominated the universities and educated discussion. It also describes the rise of freemasonry, the Jacobin trials, and the important figure of Clemens von Metternich, who took direction of Habsburg foreign policy from 1809, at the lowest point in its fortunes, until 1848. Metternich’s aversion to political reform only made revolution more likely.

3. ‘As if the king of each’

Charles V did not try to unite his disparate realms, but ruled instead through the separate governments of his individual lands and kingdoms. The preferred method of 16th-century Habsburg rule was ‘conciliar’. This meant that Habsburg monarchs practised, where they could, government by committee, and functions were devolved to meetings made up largely of experts. ‘“As if the King of each”: 16th and 17th centuries’ describes the almost continuous war against the Ottoman Empire. During the 16th century, Protestantism made extensive inroads into the Austrian lands. In 1606 a lasting peace with the Ottomans was reached, but the day of religious reckoning was not far off.

6. The era of Franz Joseph

‘The era of Franz Joseph: 19th century’ considers the rule of Franz Joseph after his uncle, Emperor Ferdinand, abdicated at the end of 1848. Franz Joseph’s reign began with nine years of ‘neo-absolutism’, but the unaccountability of his regime led to financial ruin. Franz Joseph abandoned neo-absolutism grudgingly, but eventually, in February 1861, he ordered the establishment of a parliament or Reichsrat and, later, gave Hungary home-rule. The rise of nationalism throughout the empire is described along with the explosion of artistic and intellectual vitality that took place in Vienna around 1900. The history and role of Jews in contributing to Habsburg and Central European culture is also discussed.