Introduction

The introduction begins by discussing Edmund Ruffin, a pro-secession Virginian who published Anticipations of the Future, to Serve as Lessons for the Present Time, a novel in which the South secedes and maintains the institution of slavery and even spreads it to states sick of aggressive New England abolitionists. Ruffin accurately predicted that the south would use its enslaved population to sustain the war effort while remaining subservient to the white population. He did not imagine African Americans fighting alongside whites as soldiers. Despite Ruffin’s and other Confederates’ aversion to allowing African Americans to enlist in the army, claims that racially integrated units existed in the confederate army are widespread. The Sons of Confederate Veterans (SCV) was the first organization, beginning in the late 1970s, to insist there were black Confederate soldiers. They hoped this narrative would negate any claims that the south fought to preserve slavery. In reality, most black people directly involved with the Confederate army were camp slaves or were forced to perform labor to keep the military running.

Camp Slaves and Pensions

Around 2,800 former camp slaves received pensions from former Confederate states. Although the total number was relatively small, these men remained a potent symbol within the Lost Cause narrative, shaping Southern memories of the war well into the twentieth century. The push to pension former camp slaves was mostly sustained by Confederate veterans and enslavers who had interacted extensively with camp slaves. These veterans often argued for pensions for loyal slaves who were now impoverished, illustrating that financial assistance relied on Black people complying with their position at the bottom of the racial hierarchy. Sumner Archibald Cunningham, who oversaw the publication of Confederate Veteran magazine from 1893 until his death in 1913, was perhaps the most important voice in the argument for camp slave pensions. People often point to the existence of pensions for the formerly enslaved as evidence of Black Confederate soldiers, however, no documentation regarding pensions acknowledges Black men as soldiers.

Camp Slaves on the Battlefield

Confederates often wrote of loyal, hardworking, and brave slaves in their diaries and journals. The loyal slave narrative became a central part of the Lost Cause narrative. There are reports of camp slaves entering battle alongside their enslavers; however, having Black men on the battlefield challenged southern ideas of white masculinity and honor. Camp slaves were present on battlefields to transport the wounded and guard supplies, not to fight. Frederick Douglass stated that the south was enlisting Black men to pressure the Lincoln administration to recruit black men. His claims could have been rooted in his use of battlefield reports of armed black Confederates for propaganda purposes. Some free Black communities offered their services to stay in the good graces of whites but were not accepted into the Confederate army. Black people in New Orleans formed the Native Guard in an attempt to protect their property and social rank by demonstrating their loyalty to the Confederacy. Although the story of the Native Guard is often cited as evidence of loyal black soldiers, the unit was never considered a part of the Confederate army. As the war continued and the army became more desperate, serious consideration was given toward recruiting Black men.

Conclusion

The author concludes by describing some neo-Confederate groups’ adoption of the Confederate flag by terrorists such as Dylan Roof in which they reiterate the false claim that there were Black confederate soldiers. The author says that the Black Confederate narrative will continue to be believed and perpetuated by those who believe it will aid in the positive remembrance of the Confederacy despite a lack of evidence.

Camp Slaves and the Lost Cause

In the post war years and into the early 20th century, former camp slaves began attending veteran reunions. For example, Steve Perry was a former camp slave who regularly spoke at United Confederate Veterans reunions. Former camp slaves often told embellished or fictional tales of their time during the war and perpetuated the loyal slave narrative. The loyal slave narrative accompanied the shift in the messaging of Lost Cause adherents from claiming slavery was beneficial for the Black race to the war was about states’ rights instead of slavery. Paintings, popular prints, and stories of camp slaves found in magazines, published reminiscences of former Confederate soldiers, promoted the narrative that Black and white southerners were united in their fight against the Union. Sometime former slaves played characters that reinforced the idea that Black people were contentedly deferential to whites. Overall, the genial reception of camp slaves at Confederate veteran reunions was not indicative of actual race relations in the post-war south.

Black Confederates on the Front Lines of the Civil War Sesquicentennial

African Americans have long played a role in legitimizing the loyal slave and black Confederate myth. For instance, H. K. Edgerton, is a well known and outspoken neo-confederate who downplays the role of slavery in the south before, during, and after the Civil War. Some African Americans have embraced the Confederacy as a means to celebrate their ancestors who they believe fought in the war and have been forgotten or ignored. Small numbers of Black men have been recruited as Confederate soldiers in Civil War re-enactments to perpetuate the myth of positive race relations in the confederacy. Overall, support for the Confederacy is waning with the Black Lives Matter movement, the adoption of the battle flag by hate groups, and a sustained effort by various groups to accurately educate the public about the role of slavery in the Civil War. For example, the National Parks Service titled the sesquicentennial “Civil War to Civil Rights” which placed slavery and emancipation at the center of the Civil War discussion.

The Camp Slaves’ War

The chapter begins by stating that a widely circulated picture of a white soldier and a Black Confederate soldier is actually a photograph of Andrew Chandler and his family slave, Silas. Slaves were sometimes allowed to purchase military uniforms or were provided them by their masters, which explains why there are photographs of Black men in Confederate uniforms. At the onset of the war, Confederates believed they could offset the disadvantage of having a smaller population and less war-making power than the Union by utilizing slave labor. The government impressed enslaved people to work on earthworks, railroads, and weapon production. They also performed various jobs in camps such as cooking, performing music, and assisting in hospitals. White soldiers often brought slaves from home to act as personal servants. At times, the presence of personal slaves created class tensions within camps. Enslaved people often took on various tasks in camps for payment. While the shared experience of war likely brought the enslaved and their enslavers closer together, the racial hierarchy was strictly, and often violently enforced by the enslavers. Enslavers’ belief that their slaves were loyal to them and the Confederate cause sometimes caused emotional distress when a slave would run away or defect to the Union.

Turning Camp Slaves into Black Confederate Soldiers

By the 1990s, photographs of uniformed black men as well as pension applications in which the distinction between slave and soldier was sometimes clouded were perceived as evidence that there were large numbers of Black Confederate soldiers. In the late 1970s, the Sons of Confederate Veterans, became more aggressive in their claims that Black men enlisted in the Confederate army as the general public sought accurate information regarding the history of slavery. This interest intensified during the civil rights era as historians and Black Americans pushed back against the Lost Cause narrative, specifically the belief that enslaved population was loyal to their enslavers. The belief that there were willing, Black soldiers in the confederacy spread with the advent of the internet, as many people did not know how to vet sources. Additionally, films and other media blurred the distinctions between camp slaves and soldiers. Ultimately, false narratives made their way into textbooks and even historical sights.