Conclusion

The conclusion synthesizes the themes of the preceding chapters—the theory of maritime cultural landscapes, for example—while drawing conclusions about the persistence and survival of indigenous groups like the Guna Yala and forecasting the effects of climate change on the isthmus.

Buccaneers, Pirates, the Morgan Attack, and the Scottish at Darién

Chapter 4 details the various assaults on Panamá by pirates, the sack of Panamá in 1671 by Henry Morgan, the rise of a new Panamá, and the brief Scottish settlement at Darién.

The Isthmus Encountered and Conquered, 1501–1540

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the era of Spanish exploration, conquest, and colonization and traces the rise of colonial settlements and patterns of global maritime trade linked to the isthmus.

Fortification and Control, 1903–2015

Chapter 8 examines the era of U.S. control of the isthmus, the construction of the Panamá Canal, its impacts and fortification, the end of the American era, and the rise of modern Panamá and its maritime activities.

Setting and Context

The introduction explains the concept and theory of maritime cultural landscapes, the progression of maritime developments in Panamá, and the types of sites discussed.

Canal Dreams and Realities, 1861–1902

Chapter 7 discusses the post–Gold Rush period, the French canal, and Panamá’s maritime activities up to the end of the nineteenth century, with a look at the shipwrecks along the Panamá Route.

The Isthmus during and after the “Fiebre del Oro,” 1849–1861

Chapter 6 examines the reinstatement of the isthmus into global maritime trade as a result of the California Gold Rush, tracing the impacts of that reengagement on Panamá, including de facto American colonization and the construction of the Panamá Railroad.

The Isthmus in “Decline,” 1739–1848

Chapter 5 explains the late colonial period, the end of the transisthmian treasure route, the end of Spanish control, and the postcolonial period through the early nineteenth century.

The Isthmus in the Pre-European World

Chapter 1 provides an overview of the precontact isthmus, assessing settlement influenced by the marine environment, indigenous utilization of marine resources, and indigenous watercraft.

The Isthmus Challenged and Fortified, 1540–1738

Chapter 3 provides an overview of initial Spanish settlement of the isthmus, competing colonial powers, the rise of new settlements, the construction of fortifications, and the rise of the isthmus as a link in global trade.