8. Crossing the black waters: Hinduism beyond India

The location and stability of Hinduism has been challenged by the emigration of Hindus and the export of Hindu spirituality. ‘Crossing the black waters: Hinduism beyond India’ considers the extent to which Hinduism is an ethnic religion. Nearly all the world’s Hindus continue to live in India, where they represent about 78 per cent of nearly 1.3 billion people, and Nepal, where Hinduism is the state religion. There are Hindu communities outside India and Nepal, and as they have grown wealthier they have been able to build their own temples. Is Hinduism an ethnic religion or a universalizing religion with a message for all, regardless of birth and location?

6. Hinduism, colonialism, and modernity

What impact did the presence of the Arabs and Turks, then the Europeans in India, have on the religious ideas and practices of Hindus? ‘Hinduism, colonialism, and modernity’ considers this question and, in particular, looks at the effect of British colonialism on Hinduism. Many of the new Hindu initiatives of the 19th century were pervaded in some way by the influence of western culture and Christian ideas. Many Hindu reformers, such as Gandhi, developed their ideas and actions from the context of British colonial rule. Gandhi sometimes imitated, sometimes resisted, but was always influenced by western conceptions of India and Hinduism.

5. The divine presence

Divine manifestations and small miracles are believed to be commonplace in Indian religious life. Hindus visit their local temples or make pilgrimages to see and be seen by Krishna, Devi, Shiva, or any other deity of their choosing. ‘The divine presence’ considers the role of the divine in Hinduism. How is the divine presence understood and how is it worshipped? Do Hindus worship many gods at the same time, or are these all manifestations of a single divine being? A great many Hindus favour one particular god or goddess, their ishtadeva or chosen one. This is generally determined by family tradition, but Hindus also recognize and offer worship to many other divine beings.

4. Divine heroes: the epic tradition

The story of Rama (or Ramayana) exists in thousands of written and oral versions. The most well known is the one attributed to Valmiki that was passed down to him by the sage Narada. ‘Divine heroes: the epic tradition’ summarizes the principle events of the account of the story of Rama as attributed to Valmiki. It is a study of kingship, but also of human roles and relationships. Do the many different versions and genres through which the story of Rama is communicated point to a more profound diversity—of Hindu traditions, communities, and practices, indeed of ‘hinduisms’, related loosely to one another by a narrative thread?

1. The scholar and the devotee

In western countries, Hinduism is considered to be a religious system. Is this accurate? To what extent is Hinduism a religion like others and what are the principle characteristics which define it? ‘The scholar and the devotee’ begins to examine these questions by raising related methodological questions: how do people study Hinduism and do people who practise Hinduism see it in the same way as those that study it? Scholars and devotees have often been motivated by different principles in their ideas about Hinduism: its history, scriptures, and practices. There have also been differences within each camp.

7. Challenges to Hinduism: women and dalits

Are issues of status, hierarchy, and power in India related to Hindu ideas about how society should be ordered, organized, and led? Is it possible to separate social and religious questions, or are they inextricably linked? ‘Challenges to Hinduism: women and dalits’ shows that such a distinction is artificial and unworkable. In India, caste and gender issues are not simply social matters demanding a secular response; they are underpinned by religious ideas and maintained by customary practices and brahminical institutions. Arguably, the very nature of Hinduism as a religion, and even ‘religion’ itself, is challenged by this interrelationship.

3. Understanding the self

Twenty-first century gurus continue to guide by traditional methods while also using up-to-date communications technology. A number of gurus keep up an international following in this way. ‘Understanding the self’ looks at Hindu ideas of the self and especially the philosophical system known as vedanta, which was one of the six orthodox systems within Hinduism. Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva were south Indian brahmins who were acknowledged for their skill in philosophical exposition. They became known for their differing approaches to vedanta and their ideas continue to be significant for modern Hindu movements. How are they relevant for contemporary Hinduism? How did they describe the relationship between the self and the ‘supreme person’?

2. Revelation and the transmission of knowledge

Central to Hinduism is the belief that traditional stories and the truths they contain are worthy of continual retelling. ‘Revelation and the transmission of knowledge’ considers the notions of sruti (revelation) and smriti (tradition) and the differences between them. Sruti means that which is revealed and the manifestation of the divine in the world, particularly the truths revealed in the early stages or rishis which were later brought together in the form of scriptures. Smriti refers to that which is ‘remembered’ or ‘handed down’. Brahmins, gurus, and storytellers, in their different ways, are all channels for the truth once revealed, then remembered, and orally transmitted through history.

9. Hindu dharma , Hinduism, and hinduisms

Outsiders and insiders see Hinduism differently. Even insiders have different views on Hinduism from each other. It is impossible to offer a simple definition of Hinduism. ‘Hindu dharma, Hinduism, and hinduisms’ examines what it means to call Hinduism a religion, how Hindus and visitors to India have viewed it, and its derivation and changing meaning. Is Hinduism one system, or one and many at the same time? Ideas about the nature of Hinduism are evolving with the debate about Hindu nationalism and with novel contexts and challenges. What is certain is that the meaning of ‘Hinduism’ is a matter of constant negotiation.