Conclusion

This Conclusion reiterates the central argument of the book and ties each chapter to that argument: Paul’s practices of divination and wonderworking are easily and naturally contextualized within his ancient Mediterranean milieu. This milieu includes widespread practical understandings of the gods’ interest in human affairs, the human ability to discern divine messages, the human ability to channel divine power, and reciprocity as a central feature of the human–divine dynamic. The chapter observes that the mode of religiosity favored by most New Testament scholars has generated a kind of blind spot toward the evidence that contextualizes Paul in this milieu. That is, the mode of the literate cultural producer looks askance at practical, mundane attitudes toward reciprocity and divination. Thus, Paul’s emphasis on reciprocity and his consistent participation in forms of divination and wonderworking have largely gone ignored.

Introduction

The Introduction introduces the central argument of the book: Paul’s practices of divination and wonderworking are easily and naturally contextualized within his ancient Mediterranean milieu. This milieu includes widespread practical understandings of the gods’ interest in human affairs, the human ability to discern divine messages, the human ability to channel divine power, and reciprocity as a central feature of the human–divine dynamic. The chapter provides a visual chart that offers a clarifying taxonomy for these divinatory–wonderworking practices. The chapter then provides a brief synopsis of each forthcoming chapter. Finally, the Introduction explains to the reader some basic choices in terminology employed throughout the book.

A Taxonomy of Paul’s Wonderworking

Chapter 4 examines Paul’s performance of wondrous feats, divine abilities, and transformations through ritual power. First, the chapter considers his use of the terms dunameis [powers] and terata [wonders]. While some scholars have argued that Paul (begrudgingly) discusses wondrous powers only with his Corinthian followers, the chapter shows that he mentions such powers also in 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, and Romans. The chapter then looks at his claims to heal the diseases, illnesses, and pains of others, utilizing no expertise beyond the power invested in him from a deity. Finally, Pauline baptism is treated not as an initiation or purification ritual, but in light of ritual powers that purport to change the material nature of bodies. The ritual transformation of material bodies is a sorely overlooked aspect of Paul’s baptismal claims, and one that locates the practice among those frequently called mageia and goēteia.

A Taxonomy of Paul’s Divinatory Practices

Chapter 3 examines three broad types of Paul’s divinatory practices: (1) the interpretation of nonverbal divine signs [sēmeia], or communications, (2) the channeling of divine information by means of the speech faculty of a human agent, and (3) the use of literary texts or written symbols to discern divine messages. These categories include what Paul calls the interpretation of signs, speaking in tongues, and (oral and literacy-based) prophecy. Drawing on widely available ancient comparanda, the chapter cuts across our modern categories to redescribe Paul’s divinations and to normalize them in their historical environment. Paul does not invent his practices from whole cloth, but repackages and innovates upon practices that have long been part of ancient religiosity.

Divinatory Practices and Palpability of the Gods

Chapter 2 demonstrates that divinatory practices were ubiquitous in antiquity, and that such practices indicate a widespread religious and epistemological disposition. These related dispositions are best expressed by Xenophon: “The gods know everything, and in sacrifices, omens, prophetic voices, and dreams they provide forewarnings to whomever they want” (On the Cavalry Commander, 9.9). Thus, the religious disposition is that gods and other divine beings are present in the world and take an interest in human affairs. The epistemological disposition is that there is important knowledge to be gained from observing and interpreting gods’ physical impact on the world. This chapter explores a wide range of methods for Greeks, Romans, and Judeans to ascertain information from gods, and provides the groundwork for arguing that Paul shared in this basic religious and epistemological disposition.

Paul, Pistis, and Divine Powers

Chapter 6 explores how Paul relates this array of divine abilities to the ethic of pistis, or faithfulness. In essence, Paul suggests that divinatory and wonderworking powers are extended in proportion to gentile faithfulness; he does not say that such gifts are offered “in exchange for,” but rather, “in proportion to” faithfulness. The reciprocal relationship between pistis and his divinatory powers hinges on the mechanism of empowerment—the pneuma of Christ. The chapter departs from the task of comparison, as we lack sufficient ancient data with which we may compare Paul’s construction of the pistis–pneuma–gift relationship (as Paul provides almost our only first-person account of the inner working of his type of religious specialist in the early Roman Empire, we are sorely lacking another figure with whom we may compare him on this level of detail). The chapter explores forms of reciprocity thought to be critical to religions in the ancient Mediterranean, and challenges scholarship that reduces ancient religiosity to do ut des [I give so that you will give].

Discursive Claims to Divine Authority

Chapter 5 considers Paul’s numerous claims to be a handpicked mediator between God and the world of gentiles—a claim that further legitimized his divinatory and wonderworking expertise. Such claims are contextualized within widespread rhetorical practices of divine authorization, seen in the LXX and in numerous Greek and Latin texts and inscriptions. Furthermore, the chapter highlights Paul’s “divinatory pedagogy,” in which he teaches his followers how to value and appropriately use their own divinatory and wonderworking skills. Thus, it is not just Paul’s engaging in specific divinatory and wonderworking practices that bolsters his authority and prestige; it is also his evaluating, sharing, and teaching of such practices to others. This chapter also offers an important link among the arguments of Chapters 3 and 4 to Chapter 6.

Taxonomy and Pauline Uniqueness

Chapter 1 establishes the two primary theoretical approaches of the book. First, the chapter argues for polythetic classification as a more nuanced and accurate approach to understanding Paul’s divination and wonderworking. This approach moves us away from the notion of Chrsitian uniqueness and toward a historically plausible context for divination and divine power. Second, the chapter argues for thinking in terms of modes of religiosity to better understand Paul as a religious figure. I argue that Paul moves in and out of various modes of religiosity that include practical, mundane understandings of the gods, as well as the theoretical, conceptual, and counterintuitive. He participates in dual modes of religiosity simultaneously, and the seamless overlap broadens his ability to reach his audience. Academic theologians themselves operate usually in the secondary mode of religiosity, which further explains why practices of divination and wonderworking have been disparaged, rejected, or ignored. Addressing the issues of taxonomy and modes of religiosity is critical to the entire project.