4. Technological change

‘Technological change’ presents three perspectives on the nature of change in military technology: research and development, dual-use technologies, and military revolutions. World War II ushered in two momentous transformations in the world’s relationship with military technology: the nuclear revolution and modern, institutionalized, routinized research and development. Non-weapons dual-use technologies include fortifications, roads, steam engines, the internal combustion engine, electric and electronic communication, and computers. Weapons dual-use technologies include the Schöningen spear, the bow and arrow, the chariot, nuclear power, explosives, and automatic firearms. Military revolutions have been divided into two arcs of analysis: the role of military revolutions in history and the revolution in military affairs.

3. Naval, air, space, and modern warfare

‘Naval, air, space, and modern warfare’ looks into each realm in turn. Naval warfare has been conducted on three classes of ship—galleys, sail, and steam—each with its own characteristic technologies and ways of warfare. Unlike galleys and sailing ships, airplanes as platforms for warfare were custom-designed from the outset for their particular weapons and missions. The origins of space warfare paralleled aviation in many ways. Both airplanes and spacecraft are dual-use technologies that found applications from both demand pull and technology push. Finally, total warfare is discussed and how since World War II nuclear technology has deterred great-power wars.

Conclusion

Technological change continues at an increasing pace, especially for military technology, with its widespread, institutionalized research and development. Near-future technologies include true drones, robotic weapon systems, nanotechnologies of warfare, and autonomous weapon systems. The conclusion shows that although warfare technologies are now more effective, there is less warfare in the world—based on casualties as a percentage of population—than ever before. Armed conflict between developed and undeveloped states will remain predominantly asymmetric. But it is impossible to predict what technologies developed states will employ or what low-tech innovations the have-nots will deploy. Nuclear weapons and symmetrical arsenals among the developed states will likely deter interstate war indefinitely, barring some technological breakthrough.

2. Land warfare

Land warfare, the oldest and most complex form, has the longest history. ‘Land warfare’ subdivides this physical realm into traditional periodization and further delineates it by two “combined arms paradigms” and two “military revolutions”—the introduction of the chariot and of gunpowder. It begins with wooden spears used in prehistoric warfare, then moves into ancient warfare during the Neolithic revolution. The vast majority of prehistoric weapons were dual-use technologies that served both military and civilian purposes. Siege warfare of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the technologies of classical warfare during Greek and Roman times, the heavily armed and armored mounted knight of medieval warfare, and the gunpowder revolution are also described.

1. Introduction

The introduction outlines the purpose of this VSI: to trace the coevolution of technology and warfare from the earliest human experience to the present. A host of factors and variables have shaped warfare, but none more so than technology. From the Stone Age to the nuclear age, technology has driven the evolution of warfare. However, although superior technology has generally favored victory throughout history, it has not guaranteed it. Technology and warfare have interacted reciprocally through history. This dialectic is explored within a simplified chronological periodization, beginning with prehistoric warfare and proceeding through Neolithic, ancient, classical, medieval, early modern, and modern periods.