Conclusion

In conclusion, the various degrees of validity in relation to the diverse array of hypotheses on the decline of sectarianism are analysed. This section tests various assumptions and concludes what factors were most fundamental and which were the least important in explaining the diminution of what was perhaps one of Liverpool’s most defining and distinctive features: its sectarianism. It also notes how attitudes and demography have changed in the city and points out the potential for challenges in the future. However, this section adopts a generally optimistic viewpoint.

The Transfer of Racism: Did Liverpool’s Black and Chinese Communities Become ‘New Aliens’?

Chapter seven assesses whether the introduction of ‘new aliens’ into Liverpool, in the form of the Afro/Caribbean and Chinese communities, may have provided an alternative focus for prejudice, which had ‘previously’ been directed primarily towards Irish Catholics. The chapter examines but also challenges this perspective, highlighting that Liverpool has some of the oldest and most established Black and Chinese communities in Europe. In doing, it is demonstrated that anti-Black and anti-Chinese racism became more discernible than sectarianism.

Ecumenism: ‘The Great Mersey Miracle’ and a Decline in Religious Observance

Chapter six discusses a growing tide of ecumenism in the city: the ‘better together’ philosophy of Bishop Sheppard and Archbishop Worlock. The opinions of clergymen, politicians, and others are utilised to gauge to what extent the efforts of the clergymen played a part in reducing sectarian tensions on Merseyside. The chapter also analyses the apparently diminishing role of Christianity in the lives of the Merseyside populace. It demonstrates how religion has declined and suggests that, amongst many other factors, in some ways it was the strong opinions and stipulations of religious organisations themselves that led to resentment and the weakening of the Churches’ stronghold over their congregations.

Explaining the Decline of Orangeism

Chapter three analyses the decline of Orangeism in the city. Taking into account the perspectives of Orange officials, the author presents these reasons to the membership and affiliates. The overall response challenges the orthodox perception that post-war slum clearance (and the physical removal of lodges and communities) was the main causal factor in the decline of the Institution, suggesting that other factors were just as (if not more) important; such as apathy, a decline in religious observation, and a lost Orange youth.

The Influence of the Orange Order

The chapter outlines how the Orange Institution came to prominence in Liverpool. It describes its development as a religious, political, and social organisation which catered to the needs of its members and community. It outlines how the Orange Institution was held in high esteem by the city’s Conservative leaders who utilised the power of the Order, while the Order utilised its own influence on municipal leaders. The chapter then goes on the show how the influence of the Orange Institution has dwindled.

Everton and Liverpool Football Clubs: New Gods

The final chapter asks if and (if so) why football has become the ‘new religion’ of the city, as adherence to Christianity went into decline. It acknowledges how those without a religion often designate their football allegiance as their ‘religion’ on social media and even when filling out census returns. As such, it examines to what extent football has taken on an almost spiritual dimension in the city? The author notes how football’s elevation to a level of an all-embracing, hegemonic power within the city may have helped displace religion as the key divide and object of identification in the port, as for many people on Merseyside, Everton FC or Liverpool FC are as significant to their life as the Catholic Church or the Orange Order once were to a majority of people on Merseyside. Evidence gathered from supporters of both teams, politicians, clergymen, journalists, and others is analysed.

The Emergence of a Common Identity: The Integration of the Irish and the Harmony of ‘Merseybeat’

Chapter eight highlights how Irish Catholics, once culturally marooned in the city, came to influence Liverpool culture itself. It will show how the city’s speech patterns, attitudes, and dominant characteristics were all influenced by the swathes of Irish Immigrants to the city. It will also portray how the two once dominant identities in the city: Irish Catholic and Lancastrian Protestant, merged into one as the twentieth century progressed. The chapter then outlines how modern culture, such as television, poetry, music, and, in particular, the Merseybeat helped to make the city distinct. Finally it demonstrates how and why ‘Scouse’ became a defence mechanism as well as an identity.

Sectarian Dividing Lines and Post-War Slum Clearance

Building on the previous section, chapter four challenges, on a broader basis, the orthodox explanation for the decline of sectarianism. It has often been repeated that post-war slum clearance, which some perceived to be a deliberate policy to break down sectarianism (a point made by the Orange Institution), was the main causal factor behind the derailment of sectarian tensions, the author cites several examples of this. The sectarian geography of Liverpool is outlined, before validity of the slum clearance hypothesis is assessed. The question begged is whether sectarianism would have continued to flourish in Liverpool had a slum clearance programme not taken place. This chapter takes a sceptical view.

The Rise of Sectarianism

The chapter demonstrates how the arrival of the famine Irish changed (or reinforced) attitudes in the port in a decidedly anti-Irish/Catholic direction. It portrays how the presence of the famine Irish and their ‘strange’ customs resulted in their scapegoating as scroungers and alien economic competitors. The concentration of the Irish population in ethno-religious ghettoes and its effects on the city are also analysed as well as the protagonists and consequences of Irish immigration. It outlines the growth of the Roman Catholic Church in Liverpool, in response to the arrival the famine Irish and demonstrates how Catholic influence grew in line with its congregation, as did the strength of the Orange Order, in response to this influx. Both organisations, the chapter suggests, would become key players in the sectarian dynamics of the city. Attention then turns to the city’s sectarian orators and the violence that characterised the port in the nineteenth and early twentieth century.

The Diminishing Politics of Sectarianism: How Class Politics Displaced Identity Politics

Chapter five assesses the interplay between the religious and political divide. It asserts that to rival the Tory-Orange-Protestant caucus, the Liberals would also play on sectarianism to gain votes, often labelling themselves the ‘home rule’ party. The Protestant Party, Irish Nationalist Party, and Labour’s connection with Catholicism are also considered. The chapter describes how politicians on both sides used animosity for electoral success, and also demonstrates how Liverpool’s Labour Party became increasingly secular as the twentieth century progressed. The growth of more ‘normal’, class-based politics and the striving for better economic conditions (in difficult circumstances) became more powerful motivators than religion. This chapter explains how and why.