Criminalisation

This chapter details the criminalisation of abortion. A review of the history of the criminal law on abortion reveals that for most of history abortion remained outside the law. Criminalisation when it did occur was closely tied to the religious positioning of abortion in western societies. This chapter considers trends in the latter part of the 20th century abortion when countries which had criminalised abortion began to relax the laws, whilst in other settings restrictions were introduced. The impact of restrictive laws and restricted access include an exploration of the data related to death and serious injury resulting from unsafe abortion as well as the risk of criminality. A consideration of methodological issues in measuring the impact of unsafe abortion identifies new methods to quantify this. Case studies of Ireland and Uruguay highlight how restrictive laws are experienced in contrasting settings. The chapter concludes by considering the case for decriminalisation of abortion laws.

Introduction

This chapter contextualised the politicisation of abortion and sets out the significant gap in the synthesis of the literature examining global trends in abortion politics and the need for a critical, comparative analysis of contemporary issues within the global north and south. The authors each provide a personal perspective on their motivations to write about abortion politics.

Is choice enough? Engaging with reproductive justice

In Chapter 7, the development of the Reproductive Justice Framework and its international application is analysed, alongside consideration of the terminology of reproductive justice and how its use is impacted by different societal contexts. A consideration of the choice framework is offered. The case study of RESURJ, an international organisation of young feminists working in the Global South, provides insight into how movements can work at grassroots and international levels, promoting the values of reproductive justice in order to improve the lives of those most affected by oppressive laws and policies. The chapter further considers how reproductive justice can shine a light on countries with multiple reproductive oppressions. The chapter concludes by considering a recent development in the theoretical framework of Reparative Reproductive Justice.

Activism

Chapter 6, activism, centres the transnational work of activists internationally whose purpose is to improve access to abortion; taking action to provide or facilitate access; improving knowledge about abortion and challenging abortion stigma. The recent history of abortion activism, is considered, beginning with the Jane Collective, which operated primarily in the Chicago area of the US, providing access to abortion and abortion services during the late 1960s / early 1970s. This chapter reflects on how in the 21st century resistance to prohibitive legal frameworks and restricted access is offered by national and international organisations who work in collaboration with grassroots groups. The chapter reflects on the wide range of work offered by activist organisations which provide short-term help or longer-term interventions to circumvent laws or change societal perceptions about abortion.

International interventions

International organisations play a role in challenging restricted access to abortion in national contexts. This chapter considers the use of human rights treaties and an analysis of how access to reproductive health is impacted in situations of conflict and humanitarian crisis. The role of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), is considered with reference to the case study of the Philippines. This case study illustrates how access to contraception provided a driver for legal action in a setting where access to abortion was severely restricted and how a post abortion care policy has provided an alternative way to deal with unsafe abortion. The impact of the Global Gag rule, which has restricted funding from the US to those working on reproductive health around the world, is explored. The case study of the IPPF organisation and its work on humanitarian issues provides insight into the challenges faced in providing reproductive health services in settings where resources are extremely limited.

Abortion discourses: religion, culture, nation

This chapter explores the interplay of culture, nationalism and religion and their interaction with legality and access to abortion in particular contexts. Starting from the position that institutions do not operate in a vacuum but are influenced by values and norms which makes them part of the cultural fabric of a society, the chapter explores gendered notions of nationalism and culture. The role of faith based organisations in shaping international policy illustrates how religious norms shape conservatism and alternately how liberal organisations challenge such norms. A consideration of transitional societies allows for an analysis of how abortion is positioned in a framework whereby cultural, national and religious norms typically influence conservative discourses. In such settings gender rights becomes subservient to national and cultural identity or alternately may become core to legal reform. Two case studies, Northern Ireland and South Africa, illustrate how abortion discourses are shaped in transitioning societies.

Conclusion

In the concluding chapter, the themes of the book as a whole are considered with a reflection on the overarching findings uncovered during the process of writing this book of issues related to morality, lived experience, access to abortion and activism. The chapter concludes with a consideration of what lies ahead in terms of challenges and opportunities and identifies what further research needs to be conducted.

The biomedicalisation of abortion

This chapter discusses the development of the bio-medicalisation of abortion. Recent history reveals the key role played by pharmaceutical companies in the development of a medication to induce abortion (Mifepristone) and how localised knowledge amongst women identified the abortifacient properties of a second medication (Misoprostol). Whilst the bio-medicalisation of abortion was initially hailed as a way to put women at the centre of the process, its implementation was not without problems. The impact of commercial pressures on pharmaceutical companies is discussed, as well as challenges faced by those accessing the medication without adequate information on dosage and usage. The case study of Brazil highlights the hugely significant role played by women in communities experiencing multiple barriers to accessing abortion, sharing knowledge about medication which having been developed for other purposes, became known for its abortifacient purposes. The impact of the Zika virus in 2015 highlights how severe inadequacies within reproductive health policy affected women and their families. The chapter concludes by considering the impact of the bio-medicalisation on health professionals and the changing dynamic in the relationship between clinician and the woman seeking an abortion.