Introduction

This book is concerned with the modalities, namely the modes and procedures, of Anglo-papal diplomacy in the first half of the fourteenth century, when diplomatic affairs between England and the papacy intensified following the transfer of the papal curia to southern France in 1305 and on account of the on-going Anglo-French hostilities, which resulted in the outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War in 1337. On the one hand, the book investigates how diplomatic and administrative practices developed in England and at the papal curia from a comparative perspective, whilst, on the other hand, it questions the legacy and impact of international and domestic conflicts on diplomatic and administrative practices....

The Election of Clement V and Edward II’s Succession

The examination of Anglo-papal relations between 1305 and 1309 provides an interesting first case study of how political change both in England and at the papal curia impacted on the development of Anglo-papal diplomatic and administrative practices in the early fourteenth century. In order to assess the extent to which political changes influenced Anglo-papal administrative and diplomatic practices in the early fourteenth century this chapter is organized in four sections. After a brief historiographical overview on Anglo-papal relations in the early fourteenth century, the chapter focuses on the surviving diplomatic correspondence, looking at some diplomatic documents produced in the context of the diplomatic missions sent from England to the papal curia between 5 June 1305, when Clement V was elected, and 14 November 1305, when he was consecrated at Lyons, as well as examining the first Roman roll, which recorded the petitions sent from England to the Apostolic See in the last year of Edward I’s reign (April 1306–July 1307). Finally, I address the evidence concerning the first two years of Edward II’s reign in order to look for continuity and change in Anglo-papal administrative and diplomatic practices after the succession of the new English king.

The War of St Sardos and the Deposition of Edward II (1323–1327)

This chapter investigates the bureaucratization of administrative and diplomatic practices during international political conflict and domestic turmoil at the time of the Anglo-French war of St Sardos (1323–5) and the deposition of Edward II (1327). The specific aim of this section is to demonstrate how domestic and international conflicts influenced record-keeping and diplomatic practice in England and the papal curia, ultimately questioning whether bureaucratic developments were entirely driven by what Weber called an ‘autonomous’ logic. Focusing on the surviving English and papal diplomatic correspondence, the chapter first looks at how John XXII arbitrated in the Anglo-French conflict and dealt with the English domestic crisis, drawing on the evidence of the registers of secret letters, which were created by the papal chamber as a new series of registers in order to record political correspondence. It then examines English diplomatic correspondence and record-keeping in the same period, in particular the Roman rolls and the Treaty rolls, emphasizing the practices adopted by the English crown’s administrative departments at times of internal and domestic crisis.

Chancery Practices in England and at the Papal Curia During the Fourteenth Century

This chapter argues that throughout the fourteenth century bureaucratic developments across Europe went hand in glove with the practice of diplomacy. The ultimate outcomes of such growth of administrative and diplomatic practices were the implementation of shared administrative procedures, which could effectively support diplomatic activities, and the creation of a ‘shared language of diplomacy’. In order to assess how shared administrative practices and a ‘language of diplomacy’ came into existence, this chapter first addresses the formation of chancery practices at the papal curia and in England between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries with a special focus on the management of diplomatic activities and correspondence. It further questions the extent to which administrative practices of writing and record-keeping of diplomatic correspondence in those two polities were comparable and focuses on the modalities of communication amongst them.

From the Battle of Poitiers to the Treaty of Brétigny-Calais

This chapter focuses on the period between the battle of Poitiers (19 September 1356), when the English defeated the French army and managed to capture the French king, John II, and the ratification of the Treaty of Brétigny-Calais (24 October 1360), which concluded the first phase of the Hundred Years’ War and marked Edward III’s renunciation of the French crown in return for ample territorial concessions in northern France. The Anglo-French negotiations of 1356–60 overlapped with noticeable bureaucratic developments in England and the papal curia, where the management and record-keeping of diplomatic correspondence was increasingly administered not in the chancery, but by the privy seal office and the pope’s secretariat in the apostolic chamber. The chapter investigates how far smaller and less institutionalized departments took over the management of diplomatic correspondence not only because of administrative necessity but also owing to changing political circumstances that characterized the complex Anglo-French peace negotiations in 1356–60, first looking at the activity of the chancery and privy seal in England and then moving to the work of the papal chamber.

Conclusions

Through the study of diplomatic exchange between England and the papacy this book explores how a ‘shared language of diplomacy’ came into existence in the first half of the fourteenth century, by examining whether comparable administrative and diplomatic practices developed in England and the papal curia as the result of mutual influences or because of an autonomous logic and who was responsible for their implementation. These questions are based on the assumption that later Medieval diplomacy developed and took the form that it did because of the increasing bureaucratization of polities across Europe, especially insofar as chancery practices and financial offices were concerned. Although the word ‘bureaucracy’ has to be used with extreme care with regard to the late Medieval milieu and stands for what Weber defined as ‘imperfect’ bureaucracy typical of ‘patrimonial bureaucratic states’, it has to be noted that the bureaucratization of the English and papal chanceries in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries led especially to the formation of in-house styles and administrative practices. These specific procedures deeply influenced the diplomatic discourse among polities, which essentially relied on written documentation, archival organization, and the expertise of diplomatic representatives. This was especially the case for Anglo-papal diplomacy, which was fundamentally influenced by the sophisticated set of procedures and ceremonies, known as the ...

Benedict XII and the Outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War

When questioning how far political change and conflict affected the growth of diplomatic and administrative practices in late Medieval Europe, and how human agency contributed to bureaucratic reforms, especially with regard to record-keeping, the outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War in 1337 ought to be considered as a major turning-point. This chapter specifically focuses on Pope Benedict XII (1334–42) to see how the outbreak of the conflict between England and France impacted on Anglo-papal diplomatic discourse and practice during his pontificate. First, it addresses the Anglo-papal diplomatic relations in the period 1335–42. Second, it focuses on the chancery records of the English crown, especially the Roman rolls and the so-called Treaty rolls, which enroll most of the diplomatic correspondence exchanged between England, the papal curia, the Empire, and France in the 1330s, as well as other diplomatic documents. These records will be investigated to question how diplomatic and administrative practices provided a satisfactory means to inform the diplomatic discourse between England and the papacy, especially within the political milieu that characterized the first few years of the Anglo-French conflict, itself notoriously subject to sudden changes of alliances.

Representatives and Proctors

Diplomatic representatives and proctors were responsible for managing and shaping the written and oral communication among polities and were to different degrees involved in actual diplomatic missions. The changing domestic and international political circumstances and conflicts that characterized the first decade of Edward III’s reign between 1327 and 1339 led to the increasing specialization of administrative and diplomatic personnel in England and in other leading European polities. We therefore ought to focus on ‘teams of representatives and agents’ with complementary specializations rather than on individuals. In this chapter I exemplify through the means of relevant case studies how between 1306 and 1360 the Anglo-papal diplomatic discourse was managed owing to teams of agents and representatives, firstly focusing on the English representatives at the papal curia and then moving on to papal envoys in England.

The Importance of Unofficial Contacts

This chapter investigates how in the later Middle Ages the English crown also actively cultivated unofficial contacts at the papal curia thanks to networks of ‘friends’ and ‘protégés’. During the fourteenth century informal contacts between England and the Apostolic See supplemented administrative deficiencies, whereas the process of bureaucratization in both polities facilitated Anglo-papal diplomatic discourse. Three specific questions are answered in this chapter. First, who were the English crown’s contacts at the papal curia during the first half of the fourteenth century? Second, how did informal networks at the papal curia facilitate Anglo-papal diplomatic discourse, particularly during the first phase of the Hundred Years’ War? And finally, how did the English crown reward its ‘friends’ at the papal curia for their services?

The Conveyance of Messages at the Papal Curia

This chapter questions the extent to which the administrative departments of the English crown adopted continental rhetorical styles in their diplomatic and administrative exchange with the papacy in order to comply with the requirements of the stilus curie, namely the rules and procedures in use at the papal curia from the mid-twelfth century, ultimately giving shape to a ‘shared language of diplomacy’. Evidence is provided by English and papal diplomatic records, recording both oral and written communications. The chapter therefore focuses on the conveyance of oral messages at the papal curia, the aurality of diplomatic documents, and the delivery of written diplomatic documents and petitions.