Identity of Gymnophthalmus (Squamata: Gymnophthalmidae) from northeastern Amazonia with evidence for G. underwoodi as invasive in Belém

ABSTRACT We report the occurrence of the lizard Gymnophthalmus underwoodi in the municipality of Belém, state of Pará, Brazil. This is the first record of that species south of the Amazonas River, probably because of an accidental introduction by ships that dock in Belém, the same pathway suggested for the recent introduction of another species of exotic lizard recently recorded in the city. We also determined the identity of some specimens of Gymnophthalmus from the states of Amapá and Pará through external morphology and molecular data, confirming that, until now, G. vanzoi is the only Gymnophthalmus occurring in the savanna enclaves of those states. Finally, we provide a new distribution map for the species of Gymnophthalmus, including the new occurrence record for G. underwoodi for the state of Pará, where it can be considered as an invasive species.

The ghost mammals from Mexico and their implications

The species records are key to determine their distribution. In México, there are records located up to more 200 km outside the known range of Ateles geoffroyi, Cryptotis mayensis, Pteronotus davyi and Tlacuatzin sinaloae. Other species were captured in their type locality but have not been recorded again over up to 100 years: Dipodomys gravipes, Oryzomys peninsulae, Peromyscus mekisturus, P. pembertoni, Sorex sclateri, S. stizodon, Tylomys bullaris and T. tumbalensis. This study analyzes these mammalian species records, their information gaps related with their known range, and discusses the likely implications for conservation. A survey of the literature and databases of scientific collections available on the Internet were conducted. A geographic information system was used for the spatial analysis of the records obtained. Records outside the limit of the known range of these species are due to misidentification of specimens, accidental introduction and lack of field corroboration. Some of the species captured only in their type locality can be deemed extinct while others require field and laboratory work. Geographic records of the species are valuable inputs to define the distribution range of species and advance our current knowledge about the Mexican. The use of records with errors or that should no longer be considered have an impact on the risk categorization of species and the development of conservation strategies.

Chrysomyxa abietis (needle rust of fir).

C. abietis is a microcyclic rust fungus; an obligate parasite completing its life cycle on species of Picea (spruce). Only the current year's needles of Picea are infected and those needles are shed early. Reported from northern Europe and Asia, the fungus is a Regulated Pest for the USA. It is absent from North America, where susceptible species are native, and Australia and New Zealand, where they are introduced. Although usually not a significant problem in its native range, because conditions are not favourable for heavy infections every year (Smith et al., 1988; Hansen, 1997), this rust could be more damaging as an invasive in other temperate areas. Due to the fact that small amounts of infection may be overlooked, accidental introduction could occur through importation of infected seedlings or young trees.

Senecio inaequidens (South African ragwort).

S. inaequidens is a herbaceous perennial considered native to South Africa. It has spread rapidly in North and Central Europe following its accidental introduction from South Africa in wool exports. In the absence of rigorous phytosanitary controls, it is very likely to spread further along roads and railways. As its present realized niche differs to a large extent from its equilibrium niche (Vacchiano et al., 2013), it has to be expected that the species will spread into grasslands and pastures in the near future. S. inaequidens is a prolific achene producer, has vigorous growth and is toxic. Its economic impacts are currently minimal, and so far, no environmental impacts have been observed; however, due to its toxicity, its potential to spread into arable land should be considered a serious threat for cattle and human health. This species should in no case be considered for cultivation, even though its usefulness for health care (for example) has been demonstrated.

Alternaria triticina (leaf blight of wheat).

A. triticina is one of several species in the genus that have been isolated from wheat leaves; it is demonstrated to be pathogenic, whereas others appear to be primarily saprophytes. The leaf blight disease it causes has been a serious problem on susceptible cultivars of durum [Triticum turgidum subsp. durum] and bread wheat [Triticum aestivum] in India. The species has been reported from other hosts and other countries on several continents, but recent taxonomic examinations (Mercado Vergnes et al., 2006; Simmons, 2007) have only supported its presence in southern and southwestern Asia. Nevertheless, it is definitely seedborne, so that the possibility of accidental introduction by that means is a threat for growers using imported seed.

Chrysomyxa rhododendri (European rhododendron rust).

C. rhododendri is a heteroecious rust fungus; an obligate parasite completing stages of its life cycle on different plants. Mating of haploid strains occurs on species of Picea, followed by the production of asexual aeciospores that infect Rhododendron species. Another asexual form producing urediniospores occurs on Rhododendron, followed by the production of teliospores (the sexual stage). All stages are known from Europe. The fungus was reported in 1954 on Rhododendron in the northwestern USA, but the aecial form has not been found in North America. The fungus is a Regulated Pest for the USA; it has been introduced into the UK, New Zealand and Australia. As an invasive species, this rust is damaging on species of Picea and Rhododendron. As latent infections on Rhododendron can be overlooked, accidental introduction of the rust may occur through the importation of these popular ornamental plants (Savile, 1973).

Puccinia gladioli.

P. gladioli is a heteroecious rust fungus, an obligate parasite with alternating life stages on different plants. The asexual form occurs on species of Valerianella, producing aeciospores that then infect Gladiolus species. The production of teliospores, the sexual stage, on Gladiolus, completes the cycle. Both stages are known in Europe, North Africa and southwestern Asia, but only the aecial form has been reported in North America, and only on the west coast. The fungus is a Regulated Pest for the USA (Wise et al., 2004) and is absent from South Africa and Australia, where other Gladiolus species are native or naturalized. Although not a significant problem in its native range, this rust fungus could be damaging as an invasive in other temperate areas. Small amounts of infection may be overlooked; therefore accidental introduction of the rust could occur through importation of infected germplasm by the horticultural industry or flower enthusiasts.

Arkoola nigra (black leaf blight of soybean).

A. nigra is an ascomycete known only from certain parts of Australia. It was identified after causing substantial losses on soyabeans (Glycine max) as cultivation of that crop was expanded, but its pathogenicity was found to extend to other wild and cultivated legumes, some strictly Australian and others native or naturalized in many other parts of the world (Walker and Stovold, 1986). There was evidence that it could attack non-legumes as well. The fungus was observed to survive in and on soyabean crop debris, and was capable of infecting seeds, but its natural source and life cycle are unknown. Although the fungus is unlikely to be carried by any crop materials exported from Australia, the significant disease it can cause under humid conditions must make it a concern for accidental introduction to other regions.

Cronartium flaccidum (Scots pine blister rust).

C. flaccidum is a heteroecious rust fungus, completing different stages of its life cycle on different plants. Mating of haploid strains occurs on species of Pinus, followed by the production of aeciospores, which infect various species of herbaceous dicotyledons. An asexual stage producing urediniospores occurs on the dicotyledonous plants, followed by the production of teliospores, the sexual stage, that germinate to form basidiospores that infect pines thus completing the cycle. A closely-related autoecious rust, Endocronartium (Peridermium) pini, only infects Pinus hosts. C. flaccidum is known from Europe and parts of northern and eastern Asia; it is a Regulated Pest for the USA (USDA/APHIS, 2008). As an invasive in other temperate areas, this rust could be damaging on native and introduced pines or the alternate host species. The infections on pines develop slowly, therefore the fungus might be overlooked, such that accidental introduction of the rust could occur through the importation of conifer [Pinopsida] seedlings or trees.