Ephemeral Keys Authenticated with Merkle Trees and Their Use in IoT Applications

Public key algorithms based on quasi-cyclic binary moderate-density parity-check codes (QC-MDPCs) and QC low-density parity-check codes (QC-LDPCs) codes for key encapsulation and encryption submitted to the NIST post-quantum competition (Bit Flipping Key Encapsulation (BIKE), QC-MDPC KEM, LEDA) are vulnerable against reaction attacks based on decoding failures. To protect algorithms, authors propose to limit the key usage, in the extreme (BIKE) to only use ephemeral public keys. In some authenticated protocols, we need to combine each key with a signature, which can lead to increased traffic overhead, especially given the large signature sizes of some of the proposed post-quantum signature schemes. We propose to combine ephemeral public keys with a simple Merkle tree to obtain a server authenticated key encapsulation/transport suitable for TLS-like handshake protocols. This allows a very simple public key verification on the client, leading to efficient protocols suitable for Internet of Things applications.

10 Smart Cities

Politicians and urban planners have been laying the groundwork to leverage technology to meet the demands of growing urban population and provide greater efficiencies in delivering services in the quest to create smart cities. Some cities are further along in developing these services than others, with those in Asia and Europe leading the pack. Dubai and Singapore, for instance, have large, signature infrastructure and building projects carved into their plans. All are embracing IoT. This article highlights 10 cities that are widely recognized as leading the way.