Status of active trachoma infection among school children who live in villages of open field defecation: a comparative cross-sectional study

Background Although many efforts are made by different stakeholders, magnitude of active trachoma remains high among children in Ethiopia. Open field defecation was found to be the main source of active trachoma. However, comparative information on the effect of open field defecation and non-open field defecation on active trachoma is scarce in Ethiopia. Methods Comparative community based cross-sectional study was conducted from June 1–30, 2019 in Boricha and Dale districts to assess prevalence of active trachoma among primary school children. We have selected four primary schools purposively from two districts in Sidama. Study participants were selected by using simpe random sampling method. Data were collected through face to face interview, direct observation and ophthalmic examination. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess factors associated with active trachoma infection among primary school children. Adjusted Odds Ratios with 95% confidence interval and p-value less than 0.05 were computed to determine the level of significance. Result From the total of 746 study participants, only 701 study participants gave full response for interview questions making a response rate of 94%. The overall prevalence of active trachoma infection was 17.5% (95% CI, 14.1–20.8) among primary school students. Specifically, prevalence of active trachoma infection was 67.5% among children who lived in open field defecation villages, but it was 88.5% among school children who live in Non-ODF Kebeles. Factors like: Living in open field defecation Kebeles (AOR = 2.52, 95% CI, 1.5–4.1), having ocular discharge (AOR = 5.715, 95% CI, 3.4–9.4), having nasal discharge (AOR = 1.9, 95% CI, 1.06–3.39), and fly on the face (AOR = 6.47, 95% CI, 3.36–12.44) of children were positively associated with active trachoma infection. However, finger cleanness (AOR = 0.43, 95% CI, 0.21–0.9) was protective factor against active trachoma infection in this study. Conclusion Significant variation in prevalence of active trachoma infection among school children between open filed and non-open field defecation Kebeles was observed. Surprisingly, the prevalence in open field defecation was significantly lower than non-open field defecation. Hence, this indicates active trachoma infection highly depends on the hand hygiene than environmental sanitation. Educational campaign of hand hygiene should be enhanced in the community for school students.

Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Human Intestinal Protozoan Parasitic Infections in Ethiopia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background. Human intestinal protozoan parasitic infections (HIPPIs) are a series of public health problems in developing countries like Ethiopia. The overall prevalence of HIPPIs in Ethiopia is not known. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis study is aimed at determining the overall prevalence of HIPPIs in Ethiopia. Methods. Articles written in English were searched from online public databases. Searching terms used were “prevalence,” “intestinal protozoan parasite,” “associated factors,” and “Ethiopia.” We used Stata version 14 for meta-analysis and Cochran’s Q test statistics and the I2 test for heterogeneity. Result. A total of 286 articles were reviewed, but only 45 of them fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The pooled prevalence of HIPPIs in Ethiopia was 25.01% (95% CI: 20.08%-29.95%) where Entamoeba histolytica/dispar is the most prevalent (14.09%, 95% CI: 11.03%-17.14%) followed by Giardia lamblia (10.03%, 95% CI: 7.69%-12.38%) and Cryptosporidium spp. (5.93%, 95% CI: 2.95%-8.91%). This meta-analysis showed that family size (OR: 3.7, 95% CI: 1.45-5.85), source of drinking water (OR: 3.33, 95% CI: 1.30-5.36), open field defecation (OR: 2.91, 95% CI: 1.60-4.21), handwashing habit (OR: 2.82, 95% CI: 2.01-3.63), playing with soil (OR: 2.15, 95% CI: 1.01-3.29), the habit of eating raw vegetables (OR: 1.77, 95% CI: 1.03-2.51), and fingernail trimming (OR: 1.70, 95% CI: 0.89-2.25) were strongly associated with the HIPPIs in Ethiopia. High heterogeneity on the prevalence of HIPPIs was observed among studies within and among regions (I2>99% and P≤0.01). Conclusion. The prevalence of HIPPIs was significantly high among the Ethiopian population. Family size, source of drinking water, open field defecation, handwashing habit, the habit of eating raw vegetables, and fingernail trimming habits were significantly associated with HIPPIs.

Environmental determinants of distribution of freshwater snails and trematode infection in the Omo Gibe River Basin, southwest Ethiopia

Background Determination of infection rates of snail populations is one of the basic tools for epidemiological studies of snail borne diseases. In this study, we opted to determine the trematode infection of freshwater snails in the Omo-Gibe River Basin, southwest Ethiopia. Methods We collected snail samples from 130 observation sites in lakes, wetlands, rivers, reservoirs and irrigation canals surveyed during the dry season (March to May) in 2016. The snail samples were examined for trematode infections by cercarial shedding immediately after collection. Habitat conditions, water quality, human water contact practices and other human activities were assessed at each survey site. A redundancy analysis (RDA) was used to examine the relationship between cercarial infection and environmental variables. The statistical significance of eigenvalues and cercariae-environment correlations generated by the RDA were tested using Monte Carlo permutations at 499 permutations. Results A total of 3107 snails belonging to five species were collected. The most abundant species was Biomphalaria pfeifferi, representing 66% of the total collection. Overall, 109 (3.6%) of the snails were found infected with trematodes (cercariae). Biomphalaria pfeifferi was found to be the most highly infected, accounting 85% of all infected snails. A total of eight morphologically different types of cercariae were recorded, which included: Echinostoma cercariae, brevifurcate apharyngeate distome cercariae, amphistome cercariae, brevifurcate apharyngeate monostome cercariae, xiphidiocercariae, longifurcate pharyngeate distome cercariae, strigea cercariae and unidentified cercariae. Brevifurcate apharyngeate distome cercariae, and Echinostoma cercariae were the most abundant cercariae, accounting for 36 and 34% of all infection, respectively. The mean concentration of water conductivity and 5 days biological oxygen demand were higher in irrigation canals and lake sampling points. Human activities such as open field defecation, urination, livestock grazing, farming, and swimming were highly correlated with trematode infection. Conclusions The abundance, occurrence and infection rates of snail species were largely influenced by water physicochemical quality, sanitation and water contact behaviour of the inhabitants. Human activities, such as open field defecation and urination, livestock grazing, farming, and swimming were important predictors of the abundance of cercariae. Therefore, awareness creation should be implemented for proper containment of excreta (urine and faeces) and reducing human and animal contacts with surface waters to reduce snail-borne disease transmission.

A cross sectional study on assessment of epidemiological factors associated with open field defecation in a tribal community

Background: Almost 2.5 billion people don’t have the access to clean toilet globally. In 2011 sanitation coverage globally was 64%. While open defecation is declining across the globe, 15% (one billion) of the global population still defecate outdoors. OFD practices are associated with transmission of variety of infectious diseases. This study was conducted to understand the nature of defecation practices with respect to hygiene in a tribal community.Methods: It was a cross sectional study conducted among patients attending out-patient department of a rural health training center from a nearby tribal area, Thane district, Maharashtra which is a field practice area of rural health training centre of Seth GSMC and KEM Hospital, Mumbai.Results: Majority of the subjects practiced open field defecation (67%), followed by 18% subjects used household latrines and 15% used community based latrines. Majority of the study participants practiced open field defecation in agriculture fields (81%), while 44% preferred nearby water source as a site for defecation.Conclusions: The sanitary condition in the study area was poor. Rural areas with better literacy seems to have lower open field defecation prevalence and higher percentages of sanitary latrine usage.

Locomotor Activity and Defecation of Rats Observed Alone and in Pairs in Repeated Open-Field Sessions

Several experiments with independent groups have shown social effects on open-field defecation and locomotor activity in male rats. In this experiment these social effects were studied with a different methodological approach, namely, with repeated measurements. One group of 8 animals was tested always alone in an open field over 10 trials on successive days. The second group of 16 animals was also tested alone on Days 1 to 4 and on Day 9, while they were placed in the open field with a conspecific on Days 5 to 8 and again on Day 10. There was markedly reduced defecation and enhanced locomotion with the conspecific present, while with the absence of the conspecific on Day 9 the scores again nearly reached the level of the rats always tested alone. Therefore, the social effects on defecation and locomotion are very robust phenomena which can also be shown with dependent measurements.

Hippocampal Lesions and Open-Field Defecation in Rats

Effects of dorsal and ventral hippocampal lesions on open-field defecation of rats were investigated. Based on presurgical testing, matched groups from both sexes were either lesioned or sham-operated. Compared to respective presurgical scores the postsurgical defecation score decreased significantly in the sham-operated group but remained the same in the hippocampally lesioned group. Results were discussed in terms of habituation and the inverted-U arousal function.

Open Field and Water Wading as Tests of Emotionality in Rats

20 male and 20 female Wistar rats were assessed for open-field defecation and ambulation and for water wading defecation. Defecation in the two places was not correlated. While there was a significant inverse relationship between ambulation and defecation in the open field, ambulation in the open field and defecation while water wading were not related. Females had significantly less defecation in the open field than did any other group. In addition, of all the groups, the only animals to have significantly more defecation were the water-waders who were tested water wading first. No other main effects or interactions were significant. Results suggest that defecation in these places does not measure along the same continuum of emotionality and may be interpreted as evidence against viewing emotionality as a unitary central construct consistent for individuals across conditions.

An Ethological Analysis of Communal Nursing By the House Mouse (Mus Musculus)

Pregnant female mice (Mus musculus) housed in the same cage, will, upon parturition, combine their litters into a common nest. Young raised communally in this manner grow faster than young raised by single mothers. Since communal nursing occurs consistently in the laboratory, we analysed several aspects of the behavior. I. In the first group of experiments, we determined which factors were responsible for promoting increased growth rates in communally-nursed pups. Groups containing one mother and 14 young (1/14), one mother with seven young (1/7) and two mothers with 14 young (2/14) were compared. Communal young nursed more than young raised by single mothers. At the same time, each communal female nursed less than a solitary female with a litter of equivalent size. Mammary gland development in communal females was greater than in single females nursing 7 young. The interaction between these factors accounts for increased growth rates in communal pups. 2. The reactions of mice raised in a communal nest and mice raised by single mothers were measured in the open field test and in the emergence test. There was no effect of fostering on "exploration" as measured by activity in the open field. Defecation rates, reflecting "emotionality" were low in males raised in a litter of 14 young, regardless of the number of mothers. Mice of both sexes raised in 1/14 litter groupings were the least "timid" as defined by the emergence test. It thus appeared that communal nursing had little influence on adult emotional behavior. 3. The factors influencing females to combine their young into communal nests were determined. Females and their young, separated from similar groups by a barrier consistently combined their young into a common nest when the barrier was lifted. Maternal experience, age of the young or the presence of nesting materials made little difference in their ability to perform this behavior. Aggressive behavior on the part of the mother with infant litters was directed at the alien young when there was a large age discrepancy between the two litters of pups. The significance of these results is discussed.