Hospital admission for type 2 diabetes mellitus under the Universal Coverage Scheme in Thailand: A time- and geographical-trend analysis, 2009–2016

Background Descriptive analyses of 2009–2016 were performed using the data of the Universal Coverage Scheme (UCS) which covers nearly 70 percent of the Thai population. The analyses described the time and geographical trends of nationwide admission rates of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and its complications, including chronic kidney disease (CKD), myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular diseases, retinopathy, cataract, and diabetic foot amputation. Methods and findings The database of T2DM patients aged 15–100 years who were admitted between 2009 and 2016 under the UCS and that of the UCS population were retrieved for the analyses. The admitted cases of T2DM were extracted from the database using disease codes of principal and secondary diagnoses defined by the International Classification of Diseases 9th and 10th Revisions. The T2DM admission rates in 2009–2016 were the number of admissions divided by the number of the UCS population. The standardized admission rates (SARs)were further estimated in contrast to the expected number of admissions considering age and sex composition of the UCS population in each region. A linearly increased trend was found in T2DM admission rates from 2009 to 2016. Female admission rates were persistently higher than that of males. In 2016, an increase in the T2DM admission rates was observed among the older ages relative to that in 2009. Although the SARs of T2DM were generally higher in Bangkok and central regions in 2009, except that with CKD and foot amputation which had higher trends in northeastern regions, the geographical inequalities were fairly reduced by 2016. Conclusion Admission rates of T2DM and its major complications increased in Thailand from 2009 to 2016. Although the overall geographical inequalities in the SARs of T2DM were reduced in the country, further efforts are required to improve the health system and policies focusing on risk factors and regions to manage the increasing T2DM.

Inequalities in Periodontal Disease According to Insurance Schemes in Thailand

Few studies have considered the effects of insurance on periodontal disease. We aimed to investigate the association between insurance schemes and periodontal disease among adults, using Thailand’s National Oral Health Survey (2017) data. A modified Community Periodontal Index was used to measure periodontal disease. Insurance schemes were categorized into the Universal Coverage Scheme (UCS), Civil Servant Medical Benefit Scheme (CSMBS), Social Security Scheme (SSS), and “others”. Poisson regression was applied to estimate the prevalence ratios (PRs) of insurance schemes for periodontal disease, with adjustment for age, gender, residential location, education attainment, and income. The data of 4534 participants (mean age, 39.6 ± 2.9 years; 2194 men, 2340 women) were analyzed. The proportions of participants with gingivitis or periodontitis were 87.6% and 25.9%, respectively. In covariate adjusted models, lowest education (PRs, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.01–1.06) and UCS (PRs, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02–1.08) yielded significantly higher PRs for gingivitis, whereas lowest education (PRs, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.05–1.37) and UCS (PRs, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.02–1.34) yielded substantially higher PRs for periodontitis. Insurance schemes may be social predictors of periodontal disease. For better oral health, reduced insurance inequalities are required to increase access to regular dental visits and utilization in Thailand.

Participatory and responsive governance in universal health coverage: an analysis of legislative provisions in Thailand

Participatory and responsive governance in universal health coverage (UHC) systems synergistically ensure the needs of citizens are protected and met. In Thailand, UHC constitutes of three public insurance schemes: Civil Servant Medical Benefit Scheme, Social Health Insurance and Universal Coverage Scheme. Each scheme is governed through individual laws. This study aimed to identify, analyse and compare the legislative provisions related to participatory and responsive governance within the three public health insurance schemes and draw lessons that can be useful for other low-income and middle-income countries in their legislative process for UHC. The legislative provisions in each policy document were analysed using a conceptual framework derived from key literature. The results found that overall the UHC legislative provisions promote citizen representation and involvement in UHC governance, implementation and management, support citizens’ ability to voice concerns and improve UHC, protect citizens’ access to information as well as ensure access to and provision of quality care. Participatory governance is legislated in 33 sections, of which 23 are in the Universal Coverage Scheme, 4 in the Social Health Insurance and none in the Civil Servant Medical Benefit Scheme. Responsive governance is legislated in 24 sections, of which 18 are in the Universal Coverage Scheme, 2 in the Social Health Insurance and 4 in the Civil Servant Medical Benefit Scheme. Therefore, while several legislative provisions on both participatory and responsive governance exist in the Thai UHC, not all schemes equally bolster citizen participation and government responsiveness. In addition, as legislations are merely enabling factors, adequate implementation capacity and commitment to the legislative provisions are equally important.

Indonesian General Practitioners’ Experience of Practicing in Primary Care under the Implementation of Universal Health Coverage Scheme (JKN)

Introduction The Indonesian government has been implementing Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN) as the national universal coverage scheme to help Indonesian citizens affording medical care since 2014. However, after a few years of its implementation, a very limited study has been conducted to explore general practitioners’ (GPs) views and experiences of practicing in primary care under JKN implementation. Methods The study applied semi-structured interviews with GPs from January to February 2016, guided by a phenomenology approach in Yogyakarta province, Indonesia. The GPs were recruited using a maximum variation sample design. The interviews were recorded and transcribed, and the data were analyzed thematically. Result A total of 19 GPs were interviewed. Three major themes emerged, namely: powerlessness, clinical resources, and administration. Transition to the JKN system has improved patient access to primary care without significant economic barrier, however, GP participants experienced a sense of powerless practice during JKN implementation. They also commented on limited clinical resources and claimed that JKN administration was complicated and burdened their practice. Conclusion This study identifies various perspectives from GPs practicing in primary care under JKN implementation. The JKN improves access to primary care practice, but there are limited supports for GPs to practice optimally and maintain their relationships with patients. Extensive improvements are needed to upgrade the GP practice in primary care.

Association between Health Insurance and Incidence of Death in Stateless Children in Tak Province, Thailand

This study assesses the association between health insurance and incidence of death in stateless children compared with uninsured children in Tak Province in Thailand. The study used electronic medical records of children aged between 0 and 15 who registered with selected health facilities between 01 January 2013 and 31 December 2017. The required data was obtained from ‘43-files database’ through the Provincial Public Health Office. The death case was used as a binary outcome variable while the exposure was three types of insurance: uninsured, stateless and the Universal Coverage Scheme (UCS). The age, sex and domicile of the children were used as covariates in the multivariate logistic regression. Of 164,435 registered children, 824 death cases were found during the study period. The study results suggest that insurance is associated with the reduced risk of deaths in stateless children. The odds of death is 86 per cent lower in the stateless insurees than in the uninsured children (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.242, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.136,0.403]; p < 0.001). The death is 69 per cent lower in the UCS beneficiaries than in the uninsured children (AOR = 0.385,95 per cent CI = [0.308,0.489]; p < 0.001). Age, sex and domicile of the children were independently associated with a varying risk of death.

Analysis of Composition Change of Public Facility Care Users After the Universal Coverage Scheme in Thailand

This study conducted a preliminary analysis to examine the impact of Thailand’s Universal Coverage Scheme (UCS) on health care use. In contrast with our expectation, no significant increase was found in the use of public facility care (i.e., use of the UCS services) after the UCS because the UCS increased the use of public facility care for the previously uninsured, but at the same time, it similarly decreased the previously insured who were previous public facility care users. Based on a view of this situation as a composition change of public facility care users, this study investigated where and discussed why the composition change occurred. By classifying health care use into four types (no care, informal care, public facility care, and private facility care), descriptive analysis and pooled logistic regression analysis were performed with data from the Health and Welfare Survey 2001 and 2003 to 2005. The study results showed that the UCS largely increased the use of public facility care for the previous uninsured people. In addition, the degree of the increase was relatively larger in lower income, older, younger, female, and rural people. Meanwhile, the UCS decreased the use of public facility care for previous public facility care users, especially those in higher income, middle-aged (mostly age 20–39 years), male, and urban people. This was probably due to an imbalance between the scaled-up UCS implementation and the resources allocated for improving the capacity of public facilities. This may have created circumstances that did not serve the needs of users (e.g., long waiting time) and pushed those previous users to the private sector.