Part IV Access to Protection and International Responsibility-Sharing, Ch.30 Human Trafficking and Refugees

This chapter assesses the interactions between the international trafficking regime and international refugee and human rights law. In practical terms, refugees and other forced migrants can fall victim to trafficking when they travel irregularly in search of protection, or when they seek livelihoods while lacking legal rights, as may arise when they await the outcome of protracted status determination, or live without the right to work. The chapter takes a feminist approach, highlighting the gendered nature of trafficking and the responses thereto. Women and girls are more likely than men and boys to be trafficked, and are also more likely to be trafficked for particular forms of exploitation. The chapter studies the international trafficking regime, a complex and multilayered regime with diverse legal sources; it explores its links with the suppression of mobility and compares the limited rules that protect some refugees and trafficked persons from criminalization. It also highlights the links between trafficking and refugee recognition and looks at the protections provided to both refugees and trafficking victims by ‘general’ international human rights law and the specialist legal regimes concerned with discrimination and violence against women.

COMBATING TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS: APPROACH OF THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE

The 2005 Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings is open for signature not only by Member States of the Council of Europe, but also non-members of the Council of Europe. This Convention is comprehensive treaty mainly focused on the protection of victims of trafficking in human beings and ensure of their rights. It also aims at preventing human trafficking as well as prosecuting perpetrators. The provisions of this Convention are applied to all forms of trafficking: both national and international trafficking and whether or not it is related to organized crime. The Convention protects the rights of women, men and children who have been subjected to any form of exploitation (sexual exploitation, forced labor, services, etc.). Moreover, the Convention provides an independent monitoring mechanism to control the implementation of the provisions of the Convention. Key words: Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, Council of Europe, GRETA, exploitation, implementation, victims of human trafficking

The illegal exploitation of the Javan Leopard (Panthera pardus melas) and Sunda Clouded Leopard (Neofelis diardi) in Indonesia

Indonesia is home to the Javan Leopard (Panthera pardus melas) and the Sunda Clouded Leopard (Neofelis diardi), both of which are threatened by habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict issues and the illegal wildlife trade. Leopards and clouded leopards are threatened by the illegal wildlife trade across their range, however, very little is known of the illegal trade in these two species in Indonesia, or of the efforts made to tackle this crime. Both the Javan Leopard and Sunda Clouded Leopard are protected species in Indonesia and both species are listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), meaning commercial international trade is generally prohibited. To better understand the trade, and efforts to end this trade, we collected records of seizures and prosecutions relating to Javan Leopards and Sunda Clouded Leopards in Indonesia for the period 2011–2019. Despite both species being protected by law, this study reveals the prevalence of extensive poaching, illegal domestic trade and international trafficking of both species. A total of 41 seizure records were obtained from 2011 to 2019, which was estimated to amount to approximately 83 animals, which likely represents only a fraction of the total number of cases and therefore the risk may be substantially greater. Approximately half of the cases resulted in successful prosecution and of these, the highest sentence given was 2 years in jail and a fine of IDR50mil (~USD3300). The majority of the penalties handed down for these crimes were far below the maximum potential penalties and are unlikely to be effective deterrents.

Interdicting International Drug Trafficking: a Network Approach for Coordinated and Targeted Interventions

There is a relative dearth of literature on both the effects of cross-border interdictions and the impact of different types of interventions on international drug trafficking. This study identifies the main trafficking routes for cocaine and heroin, along with comparing the disruptive effects induced by targeted and non-coordinated interventions. It adopts a social network approach to identify the routes along which cocaine and heroin are trafficked, and then simulates the impact of different interdiction strategies on these two trafficking networks. The findings indicate that targeting countries based on their respective positions in the networks, as opposed to on the basis of the quantity of drugs exchanged, is more likely to disrupt drug flows. More specifically, concentrating law enforcement resources on countries with several incoming or outgoing trafficking connections, or those countries that mediate between producer, transit and consumer countries, would appear to be particularly effective in this regard. Interventions focused on specific trafficking routes are also likely to be effective if these routes have high edge betweenness centrality scores. This study contributes to extant understanding on the vulnerability of cocaine and heroin international trafficking networks, and, moreover, demonstrates that empirically-driven strategies are potentially more effective at interdicting international trafficking than non-strategic and non-coordinated interventions.

International Trafficking of Small Arms and Light Weapons: Consequences and Confrontation

تشارك العديد من الدول بنشاط في عمليات نقل الأسلحة الصغيرة والأسلحة الخفيفة والذخائر، بوصفها دولًا مستوردة، أو مصدرة، أو دول عبور. وفي بعض الأحيان، يمكن أن تُفقد تلك الأسلحة أو تُسرق نتيجة الفساد الحكومي والسعي وراء الربح من قبل سماسرة الأسلحة، في حين تساعد السيطرة الفعالة على تدفق الأسلحة الدولية على منع وقوعها في أيدي مستخدمين نهائيين غير مرغوب فيهم.وقد تم استخدام المنهج الوصفي التحليلي بهدف وصف وتحليل ظاهرة الاتجار بالأسلحة الصغيرة والخفيفة على الصعيد الدولي، والنظر في تداعياتها السلبية، إلى جانب توضيح أهم ملامحها وأسبابها، وأبرز التدابير الخاصة بمواجهتها، مع الإشارة إلى أهم الاتفاقيات الدولية الناظمة لها.بفضل سهولة استخدامها وحجمها الصغير واحتمال نقلها عبر الحدود، ليس هناك شك في أن الأسلحة الصغيرة والخفيفة ستزيد من العنف والجريمة المنظمة وعدم الاستقرار الدولي؛ إذ لا تزال الضوابط الوطنية والدولية التي تحكم تجارة الأسلحة الصغيرة والخفيفة تواجه تحديات كبيرة بسبب افتقارها إلى الدعم من كبار منتجي ومورّدي ومصدري الأسلحة، بالنظر إلى مصالحهم السياسية والاقتصادية. ولذلك، يجب على الدول اتخاذ تدابير أكثر صرامة لمراقبة صادرات الأسلحة وضمان خضوع العقود أو شهادات المستخدم النهائي للائحة تحظر تحويل وجهة الأسلحة أو إعادة تصدير الأسلحة دون إذن سابق من المُصدّر الأصلي، مع رفض منح تراخيص التصدير حيثما كان هناك خطر واضح من استخدام هذه الأسلحة لترهيب المدنيين أو انتهاك الالتزامات الدولية، بما في ذلك: قرارات العقوبات الصادرة عن مجلس الأمن الدولي

NIGERIAN TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS REPORT: LESSONS FROM POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

Human trafficking is an international phenomenon. Trafficking in-person report the menace as a multifaceted and illicit trade that continues to generate billions of dollars to the global criminal networks annually. Nigerians especially females are trafficked abroad day in day out. This makes the most populous African nation among the largest source of victims to international trafficking networks. Nigeria tries to combat the menace by establishing a specialised anti-human trafficking agency. The agency is accountable for the implementation of the policy. However, putting policy into action presents thoughtful barriers that create implementation gaps. To date, there is nearly no study that looks into the activities of the Nigeria anti-trafficking agency using the trafficking in-person report. The investigation is a qualitative enquiry that uses an in-depth systematic review on human trafficking, which paid attention to putting anti-trafficking policy into practice. This is amongst a few studies that attempt to comprehend the state of human trafficking service delivery to the victims in Nigeria. It finds limited training, meagre resources, absence of awareness and corruption as the main barriers hampering efficient policy implementation.

The Criminal Prosecution of the International Trafficking of Human Beings in the Federal Justice System of Brazil

The article analyzes the decisions of the organizations of the federal justice system in Brazil in charge of the cases concerning the international trafficking in persons. The research is an exploratory descriptive, quantitative and qualitative research of data. We analyze the inter-organizational relations and the basic assumptions of the decision making of the criminal justice system. The problem that we focus on answering is: how is the prosecution in criminal proceedings for international trafficking in persons implemented? The research is oriented by the organizational approach of the systemic theory and by the analysis of the network of governance for the fighting of trafficking in persons and it also involved the direct contact with the federal authorities that acted in the conduction of the investigations and criminal processes. Este artículo analiza las decisiones de las organizaciones del sistema federal de justicia de Brasil a cargo de los casos sobre tráfico internacional de personas. Se ha realizado una investigación exploratoria-descriptiva cuantitativa y cualitativa de datos. Analizamos las relaciones entre organizaciones y las suposiciones básicas del proceso de toma de decisiones dentro del sistema de justicia penal. El problema que intentamos resolver es el siguiente: ¿cómo se lleva a cabo el enjuiciamiento penal por tráfico internacional de personas? La investigación ha estado dirigida por un enfoque organizacional de la teoría sistémica y por el análisis de la red de instituciones para el combate del tráfico de personas. Asimismo, hubo relación directa con las autoridades federales que dirigieron las investigaciones y los procesos penales.

Criminal Autonomy and Specificity of International Trafficking in Human Being // Krivičnopravna autonomnost i specifičnosti krivičnog djela međunarodna trgovina ljudima

In this paper, the authors referred to criminal autonomy and certain specificities of the crime of international trafficking in human beings, as well as the differentiation of the said criminal offense in relation to other related criminal offenses. This criminal offense is often unnecessarily identified with other related criminal offenses, although by its criminal law it constitutes an autonomous or autonomous criminal offense with clearly prescribed objectively-subjective characteristics. International human trafficking is a complex social legal phenomenon that is not a novelty in society, but its phenomenological manifestations have changed and adapted to certain conditions and circumstances in the phenomenological sense in different periods of history. Also, this paper articulates the complexity of discovering, investigating and proving this criminal offense, taking into account the restrictive legal requirements of the criminal and material nature that determine the actions of the law enforcement entities. It is not disputed that at the international level there is a clear commitment to the efficient and energetic struggle against this criminal offense, and in that sense, numerous international legal documents that form the platform or basis for the creation of national regulations in Bosnia and Herzegovina have been drafted and adopted, appreciating the complex constitutional the structure and existence of different levels of government. However, despite all the efforts at the international and national level, it is evident that international human trafficking is nevertheless a social and legal reality that is present even in economically developed and democratically regulated states, and as such presents a challenge to the present in terms of its criminal-law suppression.