Examining the Nutrient Exchange in All Incubation Periods in Chukar Partridges

Background: This study was conducted to examine the development of the embryo during incubation and the composition, amount and consumption of the egg nutrients among Chukars (Alectoris chukar). Methods: A total of 1210 eggs were carefully separated into their components (albumen, yolk, shell, amniotic-allantoic fluid and embryo) on day 0 (fresh), in the first (day 7), second (day 14) and third (day 21) weeks of incubation and on the hatching date. The moisture, crude protein, crude fat, carbohydrate, crude ash and energy level were determined in egg components. Result: The albumen, yolk, shell, fluid and embryo rates were calculated to be 53.62, 34.84, 11.53, 0.0 and 0.0% in fresh egg, 16.74, 33.49, 16.22, 31.76 and 2.06% in the first week of incubation, 15.65, 28.32, 15.58, 23.35 and 17.10% in the second week of incubation and 0.0, 23.33, 19.38, 0.0 and 57.29% in the third week of incubation, respectively. The hatching weight of the chick was 16.16 g. The nutrients of the yolk, albumen, fluid and shell proportionally varied significantly in different periods of incubation. According to the nutrient changes calculated based on the weight differences of egg components, carbohydrates were mostly used for nutrients during incubation. It was found that even though the nutrients in all the egg components were used in the different periods of incubation, egg yolk was an important source for the embryo throughout the incubation period.

Adipokine, gut and thyroid hormone responses to probiotic application in chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) exposed to heat stress

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Lactobacillus reuteri E81 (LRE) probiotic supplementation on heat stress responses in chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar). The birds were divided into two groups, one of which was exposed to heat stress (HS). Within each group, four subgroups, each including 64 birds, were created for the three treatment doses (200, 400 or 600 mg/kg) of LRE and the control. The experiment was started with day-old birds, kept at a temperature of 25 °C or 37 °C. After a 7-day adjustment period, the LRE supplementation lasted for 35 days. The levels of different adipokines, including visfatin (VF), adiponectin (ADP), chemerin (CHEM), as well as the concentration of plasma citrulline (CIT) and the levels of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in the blood were measured at 21 and 42 days of age. A significant correlation (P < 0.01) was found between LRE supplementation and the decrease in serum VF, ADP, CIT, T3 and T4 levels in partridges exposed to HS. On the other hand, no significant relationship was found between LRE supplementation and the serum CHEM and TSH levels (P > 0.05). We concluded that the addition of 600 mg/kg LRE is beneficial in preventing intestinal damage and inflammation provoked by HS.

Outbreaks of Mycoplasmosis and Histomoniasis in a Southern Brazilian Flock of Ornamental Birds

Background: Infectious diseases have expanded their host and geographic ranges, increasing impacts on both human and animal health. Mycoplasma gallisepticum usually causes avian chronic respiratory conditions and Histomonas meleagridis infects the cecum and the liver of poultry. Although these diseases have been reported in several bird species, information associated with their prevalence and impact in local flocks of ornamental birds is scarce. This communication describes severe outbreaks of mycoplasmosis and histomoniasis that affected a southern Brazilian commercial flock of ornamental birds.Case: The outbreaks occurred in an ornamental bird flock that contained 2,340 birds from 39 different species, distributed mostly in the orders Galliformes, Anseriformes, and Psittaciformes. Mycoplasma gallisepticum affected 12 chukar partridges, 12 Indian peacocks, 19 ornamental chickens and 46 individuals of 4 species of pheasant. The disease cases were distributed between April and July 2015. A total of 36 birds died due to the disease’ complications and most surviving birds suffered from severe ocular sequels, which determined their subsequent culling, despite attempts of different treatment protocols. The main signs included coughing, sneezing, infraorbital swelling, wasting, and death which were mostly associated with caseous sinusitis. Affected birds had positive samples when stained with anti-Mycoplasma gallisepticum immunohistochemistry and tested by Mycoplasma gallisepticum-Polymerase Chain Reaction. The application of 2 doses of a Mycoplasma gallisepticum vaccine in early 2016 to all the Galliformes in the flock reduced the annual prevalence to 4 clinical cases. Histomoniasis affected and killed 19 out of 27 chukar partridges that were being kept with ring-necked pheasants in the same enclosure. The disease occurred between September and December 2016 and a high prevalence of Heterakis gallinarum was detected in the flock. The main findings included apathy and death linked to hepatic and cecal necrosis. Admixed in the necrotic areas, there were numerous round to oval, eosinophilic, protozoal trophozoites of 15-20 µm in diameter, occasionally containing a 3-5 µm centrally located basophilic nucleus (histomonads) surrounded by a clear halo. Anthelmintic dosing, exchanging and liming the bedding material of the enclosures, and keeping the remaining partridges in an aerial aviary with a wire mesh floor prevented additional cases of histomoniasis.Discussion: In Brazil, as in other countries, the sanitary management practices applied in commercial chicken production reached high levels of technification. However, this is not the case in ornamental bird breeding systems, which may still suffer the impacts of diseases that are practically extinct in industrial chicken flocks. For both diseases, diagnosis was based on typical clinical signs and detection of the pathogens in association with characteristic pathological findings. The occurrence of mycoplasmosis and histomoniasis was associated with improper management practices at the farm; the main risk factors observed were a high turnover of birds, the absence of quarantine, the absence of basic health care, overcrowding and poor hygiene. The prevention of further cases of both diseases was mostly established with the application of basic sanitary measures, including vaccination and anthelmintic dosing, for mycoplasmosis and histomoniasis respectively. This report alerts bird keepers and avian veterinarians of the importance of establishing proper sanitary management in local ornamental bird flocks. Because some of the ornamental bird species that have been commercially propagated worldwide may be included in the list of threatened species, the findings described here also show that simple health care may promote the fight against extinctions.