Poland, philosophy in

Philosophy in Poland has developed largely along the same lines as its Western European counterpart. Yet it also has many aspects which are peculiar to itself. Historically, the founding of the University of Cracow in 1364 marks the formal beginning of Polish philosophy as an academic discipline: prior to this, philosophy was taught at numerous smaller schools, and many Poles were educated abroad, which accounts for the early influence of Western scholars and literature. In the medieval period, philosophy in Poland followed four chronologically successive currents of thought: the via moderna, which attached itself to the nominalism of Ockham and his disciples; the via communis, which sought to find a compromise between the old ways and these new ideas; the via antiqua, which marked a return to earlier philosophical trends; and a period of early humanism. The thought of Aristotle became dominant during the fifteenth century, as was the case at practically all universities of Central and Western Europe, and although this prevailed until the eighteenth century, philosophy did not remain stagnant – variations were numerous (including Protestant Aristotelianism). The prominence of political thought in the sixteenth century reflects the fact that Poland developed a new constitutional order at this time, the ‘democracy of nobles’ (the nobility accounted for about ten per cent of the total population). Nicholas Copernicus, prominent in modern astronomy and natural science, played a fundamental role in the development of philosophy during this period. The eighteenth-century Polish Enlightenment was shaped mainly by the clergy and hence was initially Christian in outlook. A more radical Enlightenment programme was propagated at a later stage. The following century saw the loss of Polish independence, and Polish thinkers were more prominent in exile than in their own country. At home, this coincided with a period of Romanticism and mystical philosophy (‘Messianism’), with influences of Kant and particularly of Hegel. The end of the nineteenth century saw a variety of old and new philosophical orientations, ranging from medieval thought to positivism and Marxism, while 1895 saw the beginning of the Lwów School of philosophy which was to become prominent in the twentieth century. After Polish independence in 1918, logic and methodology flourished under the influence of the Lwów School. However, elements of a variety of other Western schools of thought were also present, including that of British analytical philosophy. After the Second World War, administrative strictures were imposed in order to give prominence to Marxism. A certain liberalization took place after 1956, but its effects were dampened by a highly intrusive censorship. Despite this, philosophy in Poland continued to build upon the pre-Communist trends of Thomism and phenomenology, and to incorporate the new modes of thought emerging in the West. Since 1989–90, Marxism has lost its politico-administrative supports and censorship has disappeared, so that contemporary philosophy in Poland is entering a new phase of development.

Measurement of synovial fluid glutathione concentration in various pathophysiological states of knee joint – pilot study

Background. Glutathione(GSH) is a tripeptide which consists of glutamate, glicyne, cysteine. It can be observed in every cell of human body, however the biggest concentrarion of GSH is found in liver, kidneys and eye lens. For many years it is described as a one of major antioxidants, which plays important role in neutralising reactive oxygen species. Aim. The aim of this study was to assess usefulness of modified Beutler method to compare glutathione level is synovial fluid from patients with osteoarthrtitis, patients after artroscopy and patients with anterior cruciate ligament injury and/or injury of menisci Material. Research material consist of 36 patients diagnosed with knee osteoarthritis, ligaments, menisci and joint capsule ruptures or after crucial ligament reconstruction and/or meniscotomy. Patients were recruited from Univesity Hospital of Nicholas Copernicus in Cracow, 5th Army Hospital in Cracow and Orthopedic Hospital Ortopedicum in Cracow. Method. Glutation was marked according to E. Beutler in authors modification. Result. Higher glutathione levels were shown in knee osteoarthritis samples which might be adaptive mechanism, to protect chondrocytes and support their regeneration. Red blood cells appearance did not increase glutathione level. Conclusions. Increased glutathione level in samples from patients with osteoarthritis might be protection of chondrocities. Red blood cells appearance did not increase glutathione level what may suggest that they were damaged

'Absurd' Rationalist Cosmology: Copernicus, Kepler, Descartes and the Religious Basis for the end to Aristotelian Dogma

Current popular narratives regarding the history of astronomy espouse the narrative of scientific development arising from clashes between observed phenomena and dogmatic religious scripture. Such narratives consider the development of our understandings of the cosmos as isolated episodes in ground-breaking, world-view shifting events, led by rational, objective and secular observers. As observation of astronomical development in the early 1600s shows, however, such a narrative is false. Developments by Johannes Kepler, for instance, followed earlier efforts by Nicholas Copernicus to refine Aristotelian-based dogma with observed phenomena. Kepler's efforts specifically were not meant to challenge official Church teachings, but offer a superior system to what was than available, based around theological justifications. Popular acceptance of a heliocentric model came not from Kepler's writings, but from the philosophical teachings of Rene Descartes. Through strictly mathematical and philosophical reasoning, Descartes not only rendered the Aristotelian model baseless in society, but also provided a cosmological understanding of the universe that centred our solar system within a vast expanse of other stars. The shift than, from the Aristotelian geocentric model to the heliocentric model, came not from clashes between theology and reason, but from negotiations between theology and observed phenomena.

Reconciling Old Lovers

John Paul II invites scientists and theologians to work toward a new relational unity between science and religion within the context of developing a fully human culture. The Pope affirms the Catholic insight that if science and faith could live together harmoniously in the hearts of Nicholas Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, then, in principle, they should be able to do so in the hearts of all scientists. Thus, there is no need for any divorce between science and faith. The God of creation is the God of revelation and redemptioru Science and faith can work together for the promotion of tme culture, because ultimately the truth they both pursue is a "Who" and not a "what." The relationship between science and faith can be dynamic and healthy, because truth itself is a dynamic relationship. If we grant that the nuptial analogy is apt, then truly we can say that John Paul's work is an attempt to reconcile old lovers. Indeed, for the Christian, the ground of Truth is itself a triune community of love.

In the Service of the Reich: Aspects of Copernicus and Galileo in Nazi Germany’s Historiographical and Political Discourse

ArgumentFocus of this paper is on the historiographical fate of Nicholas Copernicus and Galileo Galilei in Nazi Germany. Both played interesting roles in Nazi propaganda and the legitimization of Nazi political goals. In the “Third Reich,” efforts to claim Copernicus as a German astronomer were closely linked to revisionist policies in Eastern Europe culminating in the war-time expansion. The example of Galileo’s condemnation by the Catholic Church in 1633 became a symbol of its unjustified opposition to new “scientific” results, namely Nazi racial theory. After Catholic opposition against Nazi racial theory had reached a peak in 1937, the Galileo affair was turned into an instrument of Nazi propaganda against the Catholic Church.Auch der Historiker steht in der Zeit, nicht über ihr.Das Ewigkeitspostament hat er verloren.Siegfried Giedion