Error Analyses and the Cognitive or Linguistic Influences on Children’s Spelling: Comparisons Between First- and Second-Language Learners

A collection of cognitive, linguistic, and spelling measures were administered to third- grade English L1 and L2 learners. To capture formative assessments of children’s developing mental graphemic representations (MGRs), spelling errors in isolation were subjected to analysis across three metrics: (1) Phonological constrained; (2) Visual- Orthographic; and (3) Correct Letter Sequences. There were no group differences on the cognitive or spelling accuracy measures, but L1 learners achieved higher scores than L2 on linguistic measures of vocabulary and syntactic knowledge. Analyses across the spelling metrics indicated that both L1 and L2 learners drew more heavily on their knowledge of graphophonemic rules and positional constraints in pronunciation for spelling. However, the contribution of underlying cognitive and linguistic resources to spelling differed as a function of scoring system and language group. Across spelling metrics, linguistic predictors (vocabulary and syntactic knowledge) accounted for more variance in L1 than L2 learners. The results are discussed in relation to conceptualization of spelling as an integral link between oral and written language in literacy development.

Message from Fedor Karpov to metropolitan Daniel and the scribe “The beginning of the messages...”: to the question of the interaction of the letter and the scribe in Old Russian literature

The article raises the question of the interaction of ancient Russian scribes and individual samples of the epistolary genre. A connection is established between the message of Fedor Karpov to Metropolitan Daniil and the scribe “The beginning of the messages...”, created, like the mentioned message, in the 16th century. Both the message and the scribe actualize the intention of business writing, teaching message and secular friendly writing. The first introduces a respectful and complementary tone (the addressee is lower than the addressee), the second — the educational one (the addressee is higher than the addressee), the third is actually friendly (they are “equal”). This allows Fedor Karpov to flexibly conduct an epistolary conversation with the correspondent: to attract him to himself, to inspire confidence, then, already having this trust, contrast his point of view with his own and present it as authoritative, finally, boldly affirm the “equivalence” of both points of view. This is a completely secular, humanistic position inherent to Fedor Karpov, a secular man, a diplomat, one of the early Russian Europeans. He begins to speak with Metropolitan Daniel in the language familiar to Metropolitan Daniel, in the traditions of ancient Russian epistolary communication: he self-abases and exalts his interlocutor, introduces the antithesis “addressee-sinner / addressee-righteous”. His correspondent is characterized as was done in the scribbler “The beginning of the messages...” through his high position, wisdom, enlightenment, purity and beauty of the soul, metaphors of flowering, fragrance and light. Myself — by the principle of contrast. Introduces, like the author of the scribe, the traditional medieval motif of sailing and the image of the ship, raises the question of “helmsman”. But if in the scribe, which focuses mainly on the epistolary communication of the subordinate with the boss and the establishment of relations, promotion on the career ladder, the boss was given the honorary role of «helmsman», then in the message of Fedor Karpov the aforementioned motive and image are reinterpreted in a secular way. The point is that for monks the path lies to the heavenly harbor and “helmsman” is Christ, while the secular man “swims” in the earthly world and hardly needs a “helmsman”, he chooses the path. Supporting his judgments with quotes from the Holy Scriptures (strictly selected and arranged in the text, of course, exactly as the author needs it), Fedor Karpov remains in the Old Russian tradition, approved by the scribe for the epistolary genre. But he is not limited to this tradition. Quotes from ancient literature are adjacent to quotes from the Holy Scriptures in the epistle to Metropolitan Daniel, and the judgment of Aristotle turns out to be much more authentic for Fedor Karpov than, say, the apostle Paul. Thus, from a sphere close to the addressee, the author transfers epistolary communication into his sphere. This secular quotation plan was completely absent from the scribe, but the scribe, offering users, in accordance with the title, only the “beginning” of the messages, provided great opportunities for experimentation. Fedor Karpov, to whom the European individual beginning was so dear, could not help but use them. Based on the scribe, he created, on the one hand, a modern, flawlessly “correct” letter written “according to the rules of rhetoric”, as befits an educated person, and on the other hand, a letter that is very independent, very personal, reflecting his personality. However, there is a likelihood of feedback: perhaps the scribe did not form the basis of the creative experiment of Fedor Karpov, but the epistolary text of Karpov formed the basis of the scribe.

The Effects of Pain on Brain and Behavior During Cognitive and Motor Performances in Older Adults

Pain is prevalent and associated with adverse outcomes in older adults. The moderating effect of pain on cortical control of locomotion has not been assessed. This study examined the effects of subjective pain on changes in fNIRS-derived oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO2), gait velocity, and cognitive accuracy from single to dual-task walking conditions among older adults. Participants (n=383; 55% female; mean age=76) were community-residing older adults. Participants completed two single tasks [Single-Task-Walk (STW) and Cognitive Interference (Alpha)] and the Dual-Task-Walk (DTW), during which participants performed the two single tasks simultaneously. The MOS- PSS and PES were used to assess pain severity and interference. Gait velocity was assessed with an electronic gait mat, cognitive accuracy was measured using the rate of correct letter generation. Linear mixed effects models revealed that HbO2 increased in DTW compared to STW (p < .001) and Alpha (p < .05). The presence of perceived pain was associated with an attenuated increase in HbO2 from Alpha to DTW (p < .05). Amongst those with pain, worse pain severity was associated with an attenuated increase in HbO2 from STW to DTW (p < .001). Pain interference did not moderate the increase in HbO2 from single to dual tasks. Pain did not have a moderating effect on behavioral outcomes. These results indicate that task-related changes in the hemodynamic response in the prefrontal cortex during walking may be a sensitive marker to the effects of subjective pain on brain function in older adults.

Lexical-Level Predictors of Reading Comprehension in Third Grade: Is Spelling a Unique Contributor?

Purpose Considerable research effort has focused on understanding reading comprehension and reading comprehension difficulties. The purpose of this correlational study was to add to the small but growing body of literature on the role that spelling may play in reading comprehension, by investigating the full range of lexical-level literacy skills and whether spelling makes a unique contribution. This study also explored whether these relations vary with the spelling scoring metric. Method Data were collected from 63 children attending Grade 3 in a Midwestern state. In addition to measuring reading comprehension, word recognition, and vocabulary, 4 spelling scoring metrics were examined: the number of words spelled correctly, the number of correct letter sequences (CLS), and Spelling Sensitivity Scores for elements and for words. Results All spelling metrics were significantly correlated with reading comprehension. Results of hierarchical regressions showed that spelling was a significant, unique predictor of reading comprehension when the CLS metric was used. The scoring metrics were differentially related to reading comprehension. Metrics that gave credit based on orthographic precision only (number of words spelled correctly and CLS) were more highly related to reading comprehension than metrics that scored not only on orthographic accuracy but also on phonological and morphological accuracy (Spelling Sensitivity Scores for elements and for words). Conclusion These results indicate that spelling is related to reading comprehension and have theoretical and clinical implications for the use of spelling assessment. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.9947216

Spelling Scoring Metrics in Malay Language: An Investigation among Young Spellers

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship among three spelling scoring metrics, namely, words spelled correctly (WSC), correct letter sequences (CLS), and phonological coding (PC) in Malay language. The relationship between spelling measure and word reading measure was studied. There were 866 Primary 1 (Grade 1 equivalent) students from 11 randomly selected public primary schools in Kuching, Sarawak Malaysia who participated in this study. The study showed that the scores from each scoring metric were highly correlated to each other. There was a strong relationship between each spelling outcome to word reading.

Distinct fNIRS-Derived HbO2 Trajectories During the Course and Over Repeated Walking Trials Under Single- and Dual-Task Conditions: Implications for Within Session Learning and Prefrontal Cortex Efficiency in Older Adults

Background Neural trajectories of gait are not well established. We determined two distinct, clinically relevant neural trajectories, operationalized via functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) HbO2 measures in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), under Single-Task-Walk (STW), and Dual-Task-Walk (DTW) conditions. Course trajectory assessed neural activity associated with attention during the course of a walking task; the second trajectory assessed neural activity associated with learning over repeated walking trials. Improved neural efficiency was defined as reduced PFC HbO2 after practice. Methods Walking was assessed under STW and DTW conditions. fNIRS was utilized to quantify HbO2 in the PFC while walking. Burst measurement included three repeated trials for each experimental condition. The course of each walking task consisted of six consecutive segments. Results Eighty-three nondemented participants (mean age = 78.05 ± 6.37 years; %female = 49.5) were included. Stride velocity (estimate = −0.5259 cm/s, p = <.0001) and the rate of correct letter generation (log estimate of rate ratio = −0.0377, p < .0001) declined during the course of DTW. In contrast, stride velocity (estimate = 1.4577 cm/s, p < .0001) and the rate of correct letter generation (log estimate of rate ratio = 0.0578, p < .0001) improved over repeated DTW trials. Course and trial effects were not significant in STW. HbO2 increased during the course of DTW (estimate = 0.0454 μM, p < .0001) but declined over repeated trials (estimate = −0.1786 μM, p < .0001). HbO2 declined during the course of STW (estimate = −.0542 μM, p < .0001) but did not change significantly over repeated trials. Conclusion We provided evidence for distinct attention (course) and learning (repeated trials) trajectories and their corresponding PFC activity. Findings suggest that learning and improved PFC efficiency were demonstrated in one experimental session involving repeated DTW trials.

Formation of Calligraphic Correct Hand Writing As Pedagogical Problem

The article considers the problem of teaching first-grade pupil calligraphic correct letter as a basis of handwriting, which is a stable personality characteristic in the future is difficult to correcting. As the process of writing is extremely complex and covers various areas of mental activity, the teacher is recommended to take into account the hygiene, physiological and educational components that contribute to conscious mastery of technique first-grade pupil letters formation of skills of visual-motor development of self-control on the basis of geometric eye estimation. The author offers the technique “Line-art formation of calligraphic writing”, characterizes its components, compares with the traditional method of teaching writing.

PEMBELAJARAN MENULIS SURAT RESMI DI SEKOLAH DASAR DALAM KURIKULUM 2013

Tulisan ini bertujuan agar siswa Sekolah Dasar dapat menulis surat yang baik dan benar sesuai dengan ketentuan bentuk surat dan kaidah bahasa. Peningkatan pembelajaran menulis surat resmi dapat ditanggulangi guru kelas dengan cara: (1) mengemas materi bahasa Indonesia dalam Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran /kegiatan inti/langkah-langkah pembelajaran menulis surat resmi yang sesuai dengan kompetensi dasar Kurikulum 2013, dan (2) mengaplikasikan metode pemodelan dalam pembelajaran menulis surat resmi tentang peristiwa bencana alam pada peserta didik kelas 5 Sekolah Dasar. This paper aims that elementary school students can write a good and correct letter in accordance with the provisions of letter forms and rules of language. Improving learning in writing an official letter can be overcome by teachers by means of: (1) packing the Bahasa Indonesian material in the lesson plan/core activities/steps of learning to write an official letter that corresponds to the basic competence in 2013 curriculum, and (2) applying modeling methods in learning to write an official letter of natural disasters on 5th grade elementary school students.