Does Voicing Affect Patterns of Transfer in Nonnative Cluster Learning?

Purpose Previous studies have demonstrated that speakers can learn novel speech sequences, although the content and specificity of the learned speech motor representations remain incompletely understood. We investigated these representations by examining transfer of learning in the context of nonnative consonant clusters. Specifically, we investigated whether American English speakers who learn to produce either voiced or voiceless stop–stop clusters (e.g., /gd/ or /kt/) exhibit transfer to the other voicing pattern. Method Each participant ( n = 34) was trained on disyllabic nonwords beginning with either voiced (/gd/, /db/, /gb/) or voiceless (/kt/, /kp/, /tp/) onset consonant clusters (e.g., /gdimu/, /ktaksnæm/) in a practice-based speech motor learning paradigm. All participants were tested on both voiced and voiceless clusters at baseline (prior to practice) and in two retention sessions (20 min and 2 days after practice). We compared changes in cluster accuracy and burst-to-burst duration between baseline and each retention session to evaluate learning (performance on the trained clusters) and transfer (performance on the untrained clusters). Results Participants in both training conditions improved with respect to cluster accuracy and burst-to-burst duration for the clusters they practiced on. A bidirectional transfer pattern was found, such that participants also improved the cluster accuracy and burst-to-burst duration for the clusters with the other untrained voicing pattern. Post hoc analyses also revealed that improvement in the production of untrained stop–fricative clusters that originally were added as filler items. Conclusion Our findings suggest the learned speech motor representations may encode the information about the coordination of oral articulators for stop–stop clusters independently from information about the coordination of oral and laryngeal articulators.

Delayed Benefits from Spaced Training When Learning a Precision Throwing Task

Spaced training produces gains in performance associated with memory consolidation, which develops between sessions (offline gain). Learning motor skills that require many repetitions may generate a delay in memory formation and in offline gain. We tested the presence of this delay by studying a precision throwing task. Sixteen participants performed 1020 underarm precision throws distributed over four sessions. Eight participants spaced the training by 40-min between-session intervals, while the remaining subjects distributed the practice with 1-day intervals. Memory retention was tested 15 days after training. Differences in accuracy over groups, sessions, directions of throwing movements and blocks of throws were evaluated by analysis of variance. The 40-min group had better performance than the 1-day group after the first two sessions. As the level of skill stabilized, the 1-day group exhibited offline gains, with significant performance improvements during the fourth and retention session. Both medial-lateral and antero-posterior movement directions of throwing contributed to the performance. Initial decrements in performance appeared within sessions for both groups. Overall, when learning a precision throwing task, benefits from spaced training is delayed and occurs as the skill stabilizes. These findings may help to optimize training distribution schedules, particularly for precision motor skills requiring extensive practice.

PACARD: A New Interface to Increase Mobile Learning App Engagement, Distributed Through App Stores

This study proposed to enhance mobile learning engagement with PACARD (Personalized Adaptive CARD-based interface) that combines several technologies including card-based interface, personalized adaptation, push notifications, and badges. To evaluate our proposal, we distributed a mobile learning application (app) called English Practice on the Google Play store, and 63,824 online users were recruited to join the experiment. Six metrics of app engagement (app retention, session length, session count, total time consumption, average duration per day, and uninstall rate) were logged and analyzed. Results are presented in three parts. First, PACARD increased the number of user sessions, duration of use, and retention of app. Second, investigating PACARD also provided detailed reports about users, including their habits and behaviors, thus providing greater understanding of PACARD use. Third, PACARD improved learning achievement. Because of the large number of participants, this study's findings are reliable and widely applicable. PACARD is easy to implement and tailor to most mobile devices and mobile learning apps on the market. Indeed, it benefits educators and mobile app developers as well as learners themselves.

Distributed Training Enhances Implicit Sequence Acquisition in Children With Specific Language Impairment

Purpose This study explored the effects of 2 different training structures on the implicit acquisition of a sequence in a serial reaction time (SRT) task in children with and without specific language impairment (SLI). Method All of the children underwent 3 training sessions, followed by a retention session 2 weeks after the last session. In the massed-training condition, the 3 training sessions were in immediate succession on 1 day, whereas in the distributed-training condition, the 3 training sessions were spread over a 1-week period in an expanding schedule format. Results Statistical analyses showed that the children with normal language were unaffected by the training conditions, performing the SRT task similarly in both training conditions. The children with SLI, however, were affected by the training structure, performing the SRT task better when the training sessions were spaced over time rather than clustered on 1 day. Conclusion This study demonstrated that although intensive training does not increase learning in children with SLI, distributing training sessions over time does increase learning. The implications of these results on the learning abilities of children with SLI are discussed, as are the mechanisms involved in massed versus distributed learning.

Game-Based Augmented Visual Feedback for Enlarging Speech Movements in Parkinson's Disease

Purpose The purpose of this pilot study was to demonstrate the effect of augmented visual feedback on acquisition and short-term retention of a relatively simple instruction to increase movement amplitude during speaking tasks in patients with dysarthria due to Parkinson's disease (PD). Method Nine patients diagnosed with PD, hypokinetic dysarthria, and impaired speech intelligibility participated in a training program aimed at increasing the size of their articulatory (tongue) movements during sentences. Two sessions were conducted: a baseline and training session, followed by a retention session 48 hr later. At baseline, sentences were produced at normal, loud, and clear speaking conditions. Game-based visual feedback regarding the size of the articulatory working space (AWS) was presented during training. Results Eight of nine participants benefited from training, increasing their sentence AWS to a greater degree following feedback as compared with the baseline loud and clear conditions. The majority of participants were able to demonstrate the learned skill at the retention session. Conclusions This study demonstrated the feasibility of augmented visual feedback via articulatory kinematics for training movement enlargement in patients with hypokinesia due to PD. Supplemental Materials https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.5116840

Characteristics of Motor Performance, Learning, Warm-up Decrement, and Reminiscence during a Balancing Task

Warm-up decrement and reminiscence effects have been primarily attributed to methods of distribution of practice. The present study investigated the effects of different amounts of practice on a balancing task and observed the differences in individual learning. Subjects were randomly assigned to a 5- or 10-trial practice group and performed a retention session on a stabilometer 1 wk. after the first set of trials. Subjects were given the same amount of rest between trials and sessions. Following the retention session subjects were assigned by retention performance into a warm-up decrement or reminiscence group for further comparison. The group with more practice had higher over-all performance. The warm-up decrement group showed more time-on-balance during the first practice session than the reminiscence group. The second session performance curves were nearly identical for the 5- and the 10-trial groups whether warm-up decrement or reminiscence occurred. These results suggested the importance of considering individual differences in retention of learning.

A Test of Magill's Closed-to-Open Continuum for Skill Development

Magills arrangement of Gentile's 2 × 2 matrix of skills classification into a closed-to-open-skill learning continuum was investigated. 63 volunteer university students were assigned to three experimental groups who performed different learning sequences on the Bachman Ladder for four practice sessions, climbing the unsupported Bachman Ladder (Task 4) in the final scored session. Following practice sessions, a five-trial, scored, Task 4 “retention” session was performed. Analysis of variance of retention trials indicated no difference between the practice groups regardless of practice sequence. Comparison of five selected trials from the Task 4 practice session and the five Task 4 retention performances, using a 4 × 2 analysis of variance with repeated measures, indicated significant group and time effects but no interaction. While Magill's arrangement of related activities into closed-to-open-skill learning continuums is supported, the specific arrangement of the lead-up skills does not appear critical. The question of task specificity for any learning continuum is raised, and further issues for research are proposed.