Straight to Low-Sinuosity Drainage Systems in a Variscan-Type Orogen—Constraints from Tectonics, Lithology and Climate

A holistic-modular approach has been taken to study the evolution of three straight to low-sinuosity drainage systems (=SSS) in an uplifted basement block of the Central European Variscides. The development of the SSS is described by means of a quadripartite model. (1) The geological framework of the SSS: Forming the lithological and structural features in the bedrock as a result of different temperature, pressure and dynamic-metamorphic processes. (2) Prestage of SSS: Forming the paleo-landscape with a stable fluvial regime as a starting point for the SSS. (3) Proto-SSS: Transition into the metastable fluvial regime of the SSS. (4) Modern SSS: Operation of the metastable fluvial regime Tectonics plays a dual role. Late Paleozoic fold tectonic creates the basis for the studied SSS and has a guiding effect on the development of morphotectonic units during the Neogene and Quaternary. Late Cenozoic fault tectonics triggered the SSS to incise into the Paleozoic basement. The change in the bedrock lithology has an impact on the fluvial and colluvial sediments as well as their landforms. The latter reflects a conspicuous modification: straight drainage system ⇒ higher sinuosity and paired terraces ⇒ hillwash plains. Climate change has an indirect effect controlling via the bedrock the intensity of mechanical and chemical weathering. The impact on the development of the SSS can be assessed as follows: Tectonics >> climate ≅ bedrock lithology. The three parameters cause a facies zonation: (1) wide-and-shallow valley (Miocene), (2) wide-angle V-shaped valley (Plio-Pleistocene), (3) acute-angle V-shaped valley (Pleistocene), (4) V-shaped to U-shaped valleys (Pleistocene-Holocene). Numerical data relevant for the hydrographic studies of the SSS are determined in each reference area: (1) Quantification of fluvial and colluvial deposits along the drainage system, (2) slope angles, (3) degree of sinuosity as a function of river facies, (4) grain size distribution, (5) grain morphological categorization, (6) grain orientation (“situmetry”), (7) channel density, (8) channel/floodplain ratios. Thermodynamic computations (Eh, pH, concentration of solubles) are made to constrain the paleoclimatic regime during formation of the SSS. The current model of the SSS is restricted in its application to the basement of the Variscan-Type orogens, to an intermediate crustal maturity state.

Triple oxygen isotope insight into terrestrial pyrite oxidation

The mass-independent minor oxygen isotope compositions (Δ′17O) of atmospheric O2andCO2are primarily regulated by their relative partial pressures,pO2/pCO2. Pyrite oxidation during chemical weathering on land consumesO2and generates sulfate that is carried to the ocean by rivers. The Δ′17O values of marine sulfate deposits have thus been proposed to quantitatively track ancient atmospheric conditions. This proxy assumes directO2incorporation into terrestrial pyrite oxidation-derived sulfate, but a mechanistic understanding of pyrite oxidation—including oxygen sources—in weathering environments remains elusive. To address this issue, we present sulfate source estimates and Δ′17O measurements from modern rivers transecting the Annapurna Himalaya, Nepal. Sulfate in high-elevation headwaters is quantitatively sourced by pyrite oxidation, but resulting Δ′17O values imply no direct troposphericO2incorporation. Rather, our results necessitate incorporation of oxygen atoms from alternative,17O-enriched sources such as reactive oxygen species. Sulfate Δ′17O decreases significantly when moving into warm, low-elevation tributaries draining the same bedrock lithology. We interpret this to reflect overprinting of the pyrite oxidation-derived Δ′17O anomaly by microbial sulfate reduction and reoxidation, consistent with previously described major sulfur and oxygen isotope relationships. The geologic application of sulfate Δ′17O as a proxy for pastpO2/pCO2should consider both 1) alternative oxygen sources during pyrite oxidation and 2) secondary overprinting by microbial recycling.

Benthic Fe-cycling in fjord sediments enhances the reactivity of glacially derived Fe in Arctic fjords of Svalbard

<p>Glacial runoff is a significant source of Fe to high-latitude marine environments. The amount and characteristics of glacially derived Fe depends on bedrock lithology, glacial comminution as well as glacier type. Because much of the Fe that comes from glaciers is in the particulate phase or will become particulate once in contact with saline and oxic fjord water, much of the glacial Fe ends up in fjord sediments in close proximity to the glaciers. Within these sediments, the glacially derived Fe undergoes redox-cycling driven by indirect (abiotic reaction with metabolic products, such as hydrogen sulfide) and direct interactions with microorganisms. This redox-cycling has the potential to alter the characteristics of the glacially derived Fe and thereby also its fate, for example if it is buried in the sediment or exported to the water column.</p><p>We investigated the amount and reactivity of Fe(III) minerals from the meltwater plume, meltwater streams, icebergs, and sediments at stations with increasing distance from the glacier in three different fjords on the west coast of Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Two of the fjords have large tidewater- glaciers at their head and possess differing bedrock lithology (Kongsfjorden and Lilliehöökfjorden). The third fjord, Dicksonfjorden, has land-terminating glaciers with a bedrock lithology similar to the glaciers at the head of Kongsfjorden, thus providing insight into the impact of glacial retreat on benthic biogeochemical processes. Results from sequential and time-course extractions showed that Fe(III)-mineral reactivity increased with distance from the glacier fronts and decreased with sediment depth at each station in all three fjords. Fe(III)-oxide reactivity from different glacial sources (meltwater plume and iceberg material from tidewater glaciers and meltwater stream material from land-terminating glaciers) differed based on source type and Fe(III) from all glacial sources was generally less reactive compared to surficial sediments distal to the glacier front. While the general trends were the same for all three fjords, based on pore water profiles of dissolved Fe, we found a lower potential for Fe-export to the water column when only land-terminating glaciers were present. This difference highlights that glacial retreat potentially impacts the function of fjord sediments as a source of Fe to the water column. We conclude that glacial runoff supplies large quantities of Fe minerals to fjord sediments, but benthic recycling of Fe by microorganisms transforms the relatively unreactive glacially-derived Fe(III)-oxides to a more reactive form. Microbially driven recycling of reactive Fe(III)-oxides in fjord sediments may play a role in liberating Fe to the water column, predominantly at the mouth of the fjord, and might represent an unquantified source of Fe to Fe-limited marine phytoplankton.</p>

Link between bedrock lithology and sedimentary systems in Lake Erhai Basin, southwest China, with respect to source to sink

Lake Erhai and its adjacent areas at one time constitute one complete source-to-sink (S2S) system. According to analyses of modern S2Ss, however, the S2S of Lake Erhai Basin can be divided into three subsystems — western (S2S-W), eastern (S2S-E), and northern (S2S-N). Among these three subsystems, significant differences have been found to exist in bedrock lithology (source area) and sedimentary bodies (sink area). The bedrocks (source area) of S2S-E consist mainly of carbonate rocks, and sediments are transported by small rivers and deposited on the eastern bank of the lake, forming small ([Formula: see text]) alluvial fans (sink area). Bedrocks of S2S-W involve metamorphic rocks and a few granitic and carbonate rocks. Sediments are transported by extensive streams (Cangshan 18 streams) and deposited along the western bank of the lake, forming a large ([Formula: see text]) sediment belt. In S2S-N (axial source), bedrocks are composed mainly of the clastic rocks. Sediments are transported by large rivers (the Miju and Lushi Rivers) and are deposited on the northern bank of the lake, forming a large delta ([Formula: see text]). Studies of the modern S2S reveal that different S2Ss can exist in the same basin (sag) and that these S2Ss are likely to differ significantly in catchment area, sedimentary body area, sedimentation response, etc., because of controlling factors such as bedrock lithology, tectonic activity, paleomorphology, basin boundaries, and transport channel, among others. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the distinguishing characteristics of S2Ss in further study of the ancient S2S systems.