Working-time flexibility is (not the same) for all: Evidence from a right-to-request reform

Employed mothers often incur in a trade-off between lower wages and working-time flexibility, and such compensating differentials contribute to persistent gender gaps in labour markets. I ask to what extent working-time flexibility is sought after by those who are not parents of young children, if similar trade-offs may ensue, and with what consequences for disparities among and between women and men. I evaluate the effects of a 2014 reform that extended the “right to request” working-time flexibility from parents of young children to all employees in the UK. Using a difference-in-differences design, I find that women without young children reduce their working hours and move to part-time employment. These adjustments are coupled with a reduction in job-related stress and monthly earnings, but not hourly wage rates. Effects are sizeable, suggesting that right-to-request laws can enhance working-time flexibility within workplaces and mitigate gaps between women with and without children. This holds mainly for the tertiary-educated though, and, as no accompanying changes are observed among men, gender gaps in working hours and earnings are unintendedly amplified. Implications are drawn for both compensating differentials theory and working-time policies, also in light of the current surge in flexible working.

Working time flexibility and work-life balance

Based on border theory (Clark 2000), we aim to investigate the relationship between individual-oriented and organization-oriented working time flexibility and employees’ work-life balance, as well as the moderating role of segmentation preference. We use data from around 18,000 employees from the 2015 Working Time Survey of the Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in Germany. Survey data were collected through computer-assisted telephone interviews. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that individual-oriented working time flexibility was positively related to employees’ work-life balance, whereas organization-oriented working time flexibility had a negative effect. Employees’ individual preferences regarding the segmentation of work and private life only played a minor role. Those with a higher segmentation preference profit only marginally more from individual-oriented working time flexibility and suffer only marginally more from organization-oriented working time flexibility demands. Practical Relevance: Taken together, the study’s findings highlight the importance of the design of flexible working time arrangements for improving employees’ work-life balance. Employers should grant their employees a certain degree of working time autonomy while keeping organization-oriented working time requirements, such as changes of working time at short notice to accommodate operational demands, to a minimum. This applies to all employees, not only those with a strong preference for separating work and private life.

A little less autonomy? The future of working time flexibility and its limits

The European Court of Justice has recently issued rulings on the interpretation of the European Working Time Directive 2003/88, which appear to restrict flexible working time arrangements (especially Matzak C-518/15, Syndicat C-254/18 and CCOO C-55/18). Only a few months prior to the latter ruling of the CJEU, the Austrian legislator amended the Working Time Act in order to make it more flexible. The article argues that the measures taken by the Austrian legislator to enable more flexibility and autonomy can still be regarded as compatible with Union law. In general, the article tackles the question of possible further legislative developments in order to strike a balance between autonomy and the need for security of both parties to the employment relationship. Among other suggestions, the article introduces the concept of molecularisation of working time and examines whether work intensity should be introduced as a qualitative dimension to the concept of working time, thus deviating from the current European Working Time Directive. Finally, the article suggests security measures – often referring to Austria as a best practice example – in order to safeguard workers in view of working time flexibility.

Digital labour platforms and new forms of flexible work in developing countries: Algorithmic management of work and workers

Digital technologies have led to the emergence of new forms of flexible work, such as crowdwork or information and communication technology-enabled mobile work, over the past decade. This is considered as a positive development for its high flexibility in hours and place of work, and also for providing employment opportunities to workers in developing countries, individuals with disabilities or those with care responsibilities. This article examines the on-going trend in outsourcing low-skilled work to the crowd through online platforms, and how platform design features and algorithmic management are used by digital labour platforms to assign, monitor and evaluate work. The paper argues that these distinctive features of digital platforms have an impact on working conditions in terms of access to tasks, remuneration and working time flexibility. The paper draws on a global survey of 675 workers on five globally operating platforms in 27 developing countries. Its findings highlight the need for transparency in platform architecture, design and algorithms to ensure that workers are protected from the vulnerabilities they face with digital work.