Comparative Evaluation of Sawdust with Different Casing Materials for the Production of Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach under Natural Bamboo Hut Conditions

Studies were conducted to evaluate leached sawdust as a casing substrate for the cultivation of Agaricus bisporus either alone or in combination with other substrates at College of Horticulture and Forestry, Neri, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India during the year 2018–2020. Out of seven casing media evaluated alone, coconut coir pith performed best in terms of all production parameters like time for spawn run (20.3 days) and pinning (15.7 days), sporocarps’ number (55.33), yield (0.679 kg 5 kg-1 compost) and biological efficiency (33.95%). The efficiency of sawdust- leached improved with the addition of other casing substrates. In commercial trial, combination of sawdust - leached with coconut coir pith, spent compost and farmyard manure (1:1v/v) performed better as compared to control (FYM+local soil), but a combination of sawdust- leached+coconut coir pith (1:1v/v) proved to be the best in terms of sporocarps’ number (88.00) and yield (1.271 kg 10 kg-1 compost) despite of the delay in time for spawn run (26 days) and pinning (24.3 days). Casing media also affected the biological efficiency of compost which varied from 10.50% in local soil to 34.05% in sawdust- leached+farmyard manure (1:1v/v) in different experiments. Cap diameter was recorded to be maximum (41.37 mm) in 2 years old spent compost and minimum (34. 27 mm) in sawdust- leached while, stipe length ranged from 14.17 mm in vermicompost-leached to 22.90 mm in sawdust- leached+farmyard manure (1:1v/v). However, fruit bodies harvested from all the casing treatments including standard check were found to be silky smooth and firm to compact.

Pruning Wastes From Fruit Trees as a Substrate for Pleurotus ostreatus

Plant material obtained by pruning and production of deciduous fruit trees was evaluated as substrates for the production of the oyster mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus . Lignified branches and stems from peach, apple, and pear trees were processed using a ripping machine to reduce the size of chips and to optimize disinfection. A completely randomized experimental design was proposed with six treatments (novel substrates) and one absolute control (100% hay substrate). Morphological variables such as thickness and diameter of the pileus, stipe length were assessed, as well as production variables (sprouting, fresh weight, and biological efficiency) and bromatological analysis (ash, ethereal extract, crude fiber, and crude protein). Apart from the 100%-hay substrate, biological efficiency ranged between 27% (100% apple tree as the substrate) and 140% (50% hay + 50% peach tree as the substrate). According to morphological analysis, the highest diameters were recorded from mixed substrates (50% hay + 50% wood), and a highly significant positive correlation was found between diameter and stipe length. Morphological parameters were not significantly correlated with biological efficiency. Analysis of biological efficiency confirmed that mixed substrates clustered together with 100%-wood substrates. Bromatological analysis showed that the mixed substrate (50% hay + 50% pear tree) had the highest protein content among the novel tested substrates. Bromatological parameters were not significantly correlated with biological efficiency. In conclusion, pruning residues from fruit trees can be valuable by using them as substrates for the cultivation of P. ostreatus . Production is quantitatively competitive with that using hay, on the condition that wood is mixed with hay.

Scaling and structural properties of juvenile bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana)

Bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana), the only canopy-forming kelp in the Salish Sea, provides primary production in the nearshore subtidal environment and serves as important habitat for economically and ecologically important species. An annual species, each year juvenile bull kelp sporophytes must grow from the hydrodynamically more benign benthos to the water column, where they experience substantial drag at the surface. Because of the differences in morphology and ecology across life stages, and the fact that previous work has focused mainly on adult bull kelp, we tested whether morphology and structural properties change with stipe length, investigating scaling of both juvenile (stipe length < 40 cm) and mature (stipe length > 40cm) kelp, and testing how juvenile stipes fail. Juvenile bull kelp grow proportionally (isometric growth) when young, but lengthen more quickly than would be predicted by bulb size (negative allometry) at maturity. Based on our data, the predicted breakpoint between isometric and allometric growth occurred at about 33 cm, likely ∼ one to two weeks of growth. Cross sectional area of the stipe, Force to failure, Work to failure, and stiffness (Young's Modulus) all grow more slowly than would be predicted based on length, while Maximum Stress and Toughness increase more quickly than predicted. There is no change in extensibility over the size range we tested, suggesting that this material property does not change with stipe length. The differences in biomechanics between juvenile and adult kelp are likely a response to the varied hydrodynamic environments experienced during the annual lifecycle, which highlights the importance of studying organisms across life stages.

Growth-enhanced Performance by Pleurotus ostreatus Cultivated on Salon Effluent and Spent Calcium-carbide Amended Substrates

Aims: To investigate the growth response of Pleurotus ostreatus, a wood-rotting fungus, to different growth substrates [Sawdust (SD), dry banana leaves (BL) and a combination of both BL and SD (BLSD)] amended with waste [salon effluent (SE) and spent calcium-carbide (SC)]. Place and duration of study: Department of Plant and Ecological Studies, University of Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria, between May 2015 and August 2015. Methodology: Amendments were applied to growth substrates at different levels of concentration as follows: 0 ml and 0 g, 5 ml and 5 g, 10 ml and 10 g, 15 ml and 15 g per kg substrate. Mature mushrooms were harvested and assessed on the following parameters; number of fruit bodies, fresh weight, dry weight, length of stipe, girth of stipe, pileus area using conventional method. Results: Number of fruitbodies, fresh weight, dry weight and stipe length increased with increase in concentration of additives. Best performances of these growth parameters were obtained at 15 g/kg and 15 ml/kg concentration. The highest number of fruitbodies (with a peak mean value of 28.42 fruitbodies at 15 g/kg concentration), highest value of fresh weight and dry weight were observed in SD. The longest stipe length, largest stipe girth and pileus area were observed in BLSD, though it exhibited least performances in other growth parameters. BLSD amended with salon effluent produced mushrooms with the largest pileus area (with a peak mean value of 53.8 cm2 at 15ml concentration) compared to the other substrates. Conclusion: This study reveals that all growth parameters of P. ostreatus assessed were positively influenced by all the levels of amendments on the substrates used in this study. Therefore, these wastes could be used to increase the yield of P. ostreatus and possibly remediate sites polluted by these wastes.

The Effects of Sago (Metroxylon sagu) Bark and Frond Waste as Substrates on the Growth and Yield of Grey Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus sajor-caju)

This study was carried out to examine the effects of sago bark (SB) and sago frond (SF) waste on the growth and yield of grey oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus sajor-caju). Nine substrate formulas were studied, including sawdust (SD) alone as a control and the combination of 25:75, 50:50, and 75:25 ratios between SD and SB or SF. The results showed a significant difference in the total colonisation period, total fruiting body yield, and biological efficiency (BE). However, an insignificant difference was determined in the characteristics of the fruiting body for different substrate formulas. The substrates with the ratio of 50SD:50SF and 100 SD are the most suitable substrate formulas for the cultivation of P. sajor-caju. One hundred (100) SD achieved the fastest total colonisation period (24.44 days) but there was no significant difference with 75SD:25SF (24.78 days) and also obtained the fastest first harvest (50.33 days). However, 100SD produced a significantly lower total fruiting body yield (77.99 g/bunch) compared to 50SD:50SF, which produced the highest total yield (88.09 g/ bunch) and highest BE (17.62%) with a short total colonisation period (26.45 days). The substrates produced high values in cap diameter, stipe length, and effective fruiting bodies.

Disintegration of Polyalthia debilis (Annonaceae): P. cambodica comb. nov., P. canaensis comb. et stat. nov., and P. suthepensis nom. nov. for Unona dubia

Polyalthia debilis (Annonaceae), a widespread species in Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam, is recircumscribed by morphological reappraisal. Three heterotypic synonyms of Polyalthia debilis, viz. Popowia cambodica, Popowia cambodica var. canaensis, and Unona dubia differ from Polyalthia debilis and from each other by different combinations of the following traits: plant height, leaf blade size, petiole length, flowering pedicel length, inner and outer petal size, number of carpels per flower, number of ovules per ovary, and stipe length. Consequently, each heterotypic synonym deserves recognition as a separate species. Polyalthia cambodica comb. nov. and Polyalthia canaensis comb. et stat. nov. are accordingly made; and Polyalthia suthepensis, a replacement name for Unona dubia, is proposed because the name Polyalthia dubia pre-exists. A key to Polyalthia debilis, Polyalthia cambodica, Polyalthia canaensis, and Polyalthia suthepensis is provided.

Four Species of True Morels (Morchella) Recorded from Poonch District (Azad Jammu and Kashmir)

A study was carried out in three administrative units (tehsils) of Poonch district of Azad Jammu and Kasmir (AJK) state to record the presence of true morels belonging to genus Morchella of class Ascomycetes. A periodic random survey was carried out during the year 2015-16. Distribution of four species of morels Morchella esculenta (40%), M. elata (30%), M. deliciosa (20%) and M. semilibera (10%) was recorded during survey period from February 15 to March 30. During rest of months of survey period no morel was observed in the same locations. The temperature during collection ranged between 3-7 °C. Morels were found growing under plant canopies, tree shades and on disturbed grass lands. To isolate, morels were dug out with the help of shovel and spade. Detailed macro and microscopic features such as stipe, pileus, spore shape and size were recorded. The minimum pileus diameter measured was about 1.0-2.5 cm in M. semilibera, while the maximum measurement of pileus diameter was 7.0-7.5 cm in M. elata. The minimum stipe length was about 1.5-5.0 cm in M. deliciosa, while the maximum measurement was observed 7.0-10.0 cm in M. semilibera. In addition, spore print (yellow, pale and black) was observed, while the maximum spore size was found in case of M. semilibera. The findings of this study showed the presence of four different species of morels in Poonch district of Azad Jammu and Kashmir.

Comparing the effectiveness of twine- and binder-seeding in the Laminariales species Alaria esculenta and Saccharina latissima

The continuing expansion of seaweed cultivation could assist in ensuring future global food security. The Laminariales species Alaria esculenta and Saccharina latissima are each cultivated for food across their European ranges. The predominant method for cultivating European kelps involves growing juveniles on twine within a hatchery which is then deployed at a farm site. The associated hatchery and deployment cost of this approach are relatively high. A new and innovative methodology—called binder-seeding—can reduce these costs, but, has yet to be validated. We compare the biomass yield and morphology of A. esculenta and S. latissima cultured using either the traditional twine-longline method or binder-seeding onto AlgaeRope and AlgaeRibbon, specially designed textiles. In a controlled growth experiment, A. esculenta had a similar biomass yield on all materials, but fronds were shorter (23 ± 7%) and thinner on the AlgaeRibbon (42 ± 4%) due to a 3–4-fold higher density of developing sporophytes compared to the twine-longline. In contrast, S. latissima gave a 4-fold higher biomass yield on the AlgaeRibbon in June (4.0 kg m−1), but frond morphology was not different between materials, despite a 4-fold higher sporophyte density on the AlgaeRibbon. The stipe length of both species also increased at the higher sporophyte density on the AlgaeRibbon. The AlgaeRope gave an intermediate response or was similar to the twine-longline. These results show that binder-seeding onto the AlgaeRibbon significantly increases the achieved biomass yield in S. latissima. These results can assist cultivators to select the most appropriate method of kelp cultivation depending on morphological/yield requirements of the end use. Further study is needed on the optimisation of the binder-seeding density and its impact on thallus morphology.

USE OF THE INAJÁ STIPE (Attalea maripa (AUBL.) MART.) FOR THE GENERATION OF BIOENERGY

The objective of this study was to evaluate the bioenergetics aptitude of Inaja stipe. The samples were collected in five sites in the northeast of Pará State: Cametá, Abaetetuba, São João de Pirabas, São Caetano de Odivelas and Capitão Poço. In each area, 25 matrices were identified and evaluated. The breast circumference (CAP) and the stipe length (AE) were collected for physical, chemical and energetic analysis, and a composite sample was collected from three random stipes from each zone. The analyzes were in accordance with the recommended Brazilian standards: ABNT 11940 (1983) for the physical analysis, ABNT 8112 (1986) for chemical analysis, and ABNT 8633 (1983) for energetic analysis. Regarding CAP, an average of 132.43 cm was obtained (CV = 27.81%), and AE had an average of 314.89 cm (CV = 30.67%). These variations may be explained by the different bioclimatic conditions in each region where the populations are located, as well as the different ages of each palm tree. The average values of the physical variables, moisture content and basic density were 50.09% and 0.34 g.cm-³, respectively. Therefore, it is recommended to perform a drying process, and it may be outdoors for the equilibrium moisture content with the region. The chemical tests indicated an average volatile matter of 82.46%, with an ash content of 0.83% and a fixed carbon of 16.76%. The higher calorific value was, on average, 4586.25 kcal.kg-1. The results indicate that Inaja stipe can be suitable for energetic uses, such as heat generation.