Within and Beyond the Nucleotide Addition Cycle of Viral RNA-dependent RNA Polymerases

Nucleotide addition cycle (NAC) is a fundamental process utilized by nucleic acid polymerases when carrying out nucleic acid biosynthesis. An induced-fit mechanism is usually taken by these polymerases upon NTP/dNTP substrate binding, leading to active site closure and formation of a phosphodiester bond. In viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, the post-chemistry translocation is stringently controlled by a structurally conserved motif, resulting in asymmetric movement of the template-product duplex. This perspective focuses on viral RdRP NAC and related mechanisms that have not been structurally clarified to date. Firstly, RdRP movement along the template strand in the absence of catalytic events may be relevant to catalytic complex dissociation or proofreading. Secondly, pyrophosphate or non-cognate NTP-mediated cleavage of the product strand 3′-nucleotide can also play a role in reactivating paused or arrested catalytic complexes. Furthermore, non-cognate NTP substrates, including NTP analog inhibitors, can not only alter NAC when being misincorporated, but also impact on subsequent NACs. Complications and challenges related to these topics are also discussed.

Candidiasis and Mechanisms of Antifungal Resistance

Candidiasis can be present as a cutaneous, mucosal or deep-seated organ infection, which is caused by more than 20 types of Candida sp., with C. albicans being the most common. These are pathogenic yeast and are usually present in the normal microbiome. High-risk individuals are patients of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), organ transplant, and diabetes. During infection, pathogens can adhere to complement receptors and various extracellular matrix proteins in the oral and vaginal cavity. Oral and vaginal Candidiasis results from the overgrowth of Candida sp. in the hosts, causing penetration of the oral and vaginal tissues. Symptoms include white patches in the mouth, tongue, throat, and itchiness or burning of genitalia. Diagnosis involves visual examination, microscopic analysis, or culturing. These infections are treated with a variety of antifungals that target different biosynthetic pathways of the pathogen. For example, echinochandins target cell wall biosynthesis, while allylamines, azoles, and morpholines target ergosterol biosynthesis, and 5-Flucytosine (5FC) targets nucleic acid biosynthesis. Azoles are commonly used in therapeutics, however, because of its fungistatic nature, Candida sp. evolve azole resistance. Besides azoles, Candida sp. also acquire resistance to polyenes, echinochandins, and 5FC. This review discusses, in detail, the drug resistance mechanisms adapted by Candida sp.

Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Biosynthesis Makes Little Difference to Formation of Amphotericin B-Tolerant Persisters in Candida albicans Biofilm

ABSTRACTCandida albicanspersisters constitute a small subpopulation of biofilm cells and play a major role in recalcitrant chronic candidiasis; however, the mechanism underlying persister formation remains unclear. Persisters are often described as dormant, multidrug-tolerant, nongrowing cells. Persister cells are difficult to isolate and study not only due to their low levels inC. albicansbiofilms but also due to their transient, reversible phenotype. In this study, we tried to induce persister formation by inducingC. albicanscells into a dormant state.C. albicanscells were pretreated with 5-fluorocytosine (planktonic cells, 0.8 μg ml−1; biofilm cells, 1 μg ml−1) for 6 h at 37°C, which inhibits nucleic acid and protein synthesis. Biofilms and planktonic cultures of eightC. albicansstrains were surveyed for persisters after amphotericin B treatment (100 μg ml−1for 24 h) and CFU assay. None of the planktonic cultures, with or without 5-fluorocytosine pretreatment, contained persisters. Persister cells were found in biofilms of all testedC. albicansstrains, representing approximately 0.01 to 1.93% of the total population. However, the persister levels were not significantly increased inC. albicansbiofilms pretreated with 5-fluorocytosine. These results suggest that inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis did not seem to increase the formation of amphotericin B-tolerant persisters inC. albicansbiofilms.

Terpenoid Metabolites from Spongia spp. and Their Effects on Nucleic Acid Biosynthesis in Sea Urchin Eggs

19-Norspongia-13(16),14-diene-3-one (1) was isolated for the first time from a natural source, along with a series of known spongiane diterpenoids (2-11) and sesquiterpene (12) from two unidentified species belonging to the genus Spongia. The effects of 1, 4, 5, 8-12 on biosynthesis of nucleic acids and embryonic development of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius have been studied. All the compounds inhibit sea urchin embryo development at concentration of 20 μg/mL and above and DNA biosynthesis at the dose of 10 μg/mL. The inhibitory effect of diterpenoids at least partly may be explained by the inhibition of thymidine kinase activity.