Amygdala complex: physiology of emotions and memory

The monograph provides a review of the world’s published scientific literature on the physiology of emotions that are based on the conditioned reflex reaction of fear. A detailed description of electrophysiological, molecular mechanisms of synaptic plasticity of the amygdala complex (amygdala), and their ability for long-term potentiation (LTP), as the basis for emotions and conditioned memory, is presented in this work. There are two categories of fear: innate and learned. Innate fear is realized like an unconditioned reflex by the genetically determined pathways. Learned fear is realized like a conditioned reflex and is formed as a result of learning during the combination of conditioned and unconditioned signals. A convergence of sensory inputs that carry the information on such signals occurs on the neurons of the lateral nuclei of the amygdala. Two types of amygdala cells (glutamatergic projection and GABAergic interneurons) receive inputs from the thalamus and cortex. The synapses of the projection cells are equally effective, while the thalamic synapses of interneurons are more effective. The response of projection neurons to the stimulation of cortical and thalamic afferents includes the monosynaptic excitatory glutamatergic AMPA and NMDA components and disynaptic inhibitory GABAergic components. The most important resources of the regulation of the excitatory efferents of the amygdala are GABAergic interneurons. During the stimulation of the thalamic input, the synapses of the interneurons shunt the membrane of the projection cells more effectively and decrease the level of long-term potentiation in comparison with the stimulation of the cortical input. The stages of the development of long-term potentiation are similar for short-term and long-term memory. The formation of the conditioned reflex is based on a short-term memory on the coincidence of the conditioned signal with an unconditioned traumatizing stimulus, and the consolidation — on the long-term memory. The association of the conditioned reflex reactions and long-term potentiation verify the results of the experiments on the manipulations with genes that encode proteins regulating the synaptic transmission and its plasticity. In animals with a knocked-out gene of gastrin-releasing peptide, easier initiation of long-term potentiation and formation of conditioned reflex reactions of fear are observed. The knock-out of the gene of oncoprotein18/stathmin leads to a deficit of long-term potentiation and complicates the expression of amygdala-dependent conditioned reflexes. The review and analysis of modern publications and the author’s research supplement the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion with evidence that a key role in the regulation of emotions is played by the amygdala complex that is characterized by neuronal mechanisms of stimuli filtration depending on their relevance, education, and formation of stimulus-conditioned memory. The annexes to the article contain the protocols of the electrophysiological experiments and methods of formation of conditioned reflex reaction of fear in animals.

The Role of Chemical Factors in the Inflammation and Infection of Cervico-facial Actinomicosis

Inflammation is a reflex reaction of the body to the action of some harmful agents, a reaction that manifests itself as a complex of functional and structural modifications of a vasculo-tisular nature, this reaction has occurred in the process of evolution. The intensity of the inflammatory reaction depends on the reactive properties of the body, the location of the inflammatory process, the anatomo-physiological particularities of the damaged tissue, and the conditions in which the inflammation develops. As accurate as dental technique and the practitioner�s skill, if the specific conditions of each patient are not taken into account, the benefit medical cannot rise to a higher level, with the final result being compromised by complications with unpredictable risks. Actinomycosis is a specific infection with subacute or chronic evolution, common to humans or animals, caused by microorganisms of the actinomycete family. The location of the affection in the cervico-facial sphere is four times bigger than the rest of the body; the disease is manifested by rough nodules, red in the cheek or sub-maxillary region, fistulas and scars on which new lesions appear. In order to achieve the proposed objectives, we conducted a study on a representative human sample of 158 patients, from the Oral and Maxillofacial Clinic, between 1.01.2013-31.12.2017. Risk factors (gender, age, area, dental anxiety score), our findings are unlikely to define separately the potential for the risk of installing actinomycosis. The level of dental anxiety as well as the general status of the patient are the markers that require the greatest attention from the practitioner in order to prevent a dental problem.

A health-check model for autonomic systems based on a pulse monitor

Like the autonomic responses in the human body, autonomic computing systems recognize their own health problems and, where possible, respond to correct them. Failing that, external help is required. The purpose of this paper is to consider how autonomic systems might be structured to facilitate health monitoring. The approach uses a ‘pulse’ monitor for each autonomic element, which provides a reflex reaction facility and basic information on the current state (health) of that element. The pulse mechanism extends the NASA beacon monitor concept. The different ways that pulse information might be communicated and used are examined. The discussion is illustrated with a personal computing example.

ISO Learning Approximates a Solution to the Inverse-Controller Problem in an Unsupervised Behavioral Paradigm

In “Isotropic Sequence Order Learning” (pp. 831–864 in this issue), we introduced a novel algorithm for temporal sequence learning (ISO learning). Here, we embed this algorithm into a formal nonevaluating (teacher free) environment, which establishes a sensor-motor feedback. The system is initially guided by a fixed reflex reaction, which has the objective disadvantage that it can react only after a disturbance has occurred. ISO learning eliminates this disadvantage by replacing the reflex-loop reactions with earlier anticipatory actions. In this article, we analytically demonstrate that this process can be understood in terms of control theory, showing that the system learns the inverse controller of its own reflex. Thereby, this system is able to learn a simple form of feedforward motor control.

Cost Effective Blood Cultures—Is It Possible or Impossible to Modify Behavior?

Why are blood cultures drawn? Is there a purpose to the blood culture or is it a reflex reaction to a fever? Nurse says, “patient has fever,” Doctor replies “draw blood culture.” I fear that the latter is all too often the scenario that exists in the hospital today. As we enter an era where the extra laboratory tests do not “make money, keep the techs employed and justify the lab,” we must re-examine the rationale for blood cultures.

On Physiological Regulation of the Liquid State and Coagulation of Blood

The fluidity of blood in a healthy organism is kept by means of reflex reaction initiated by thrombin appearing in blood stream in a threshold concentration. Heparin and activator of plasminogen are excreting in blood as a result of the reflex act. Heparin forms the complexes with fibrinogen, factors XIII, plasminogen, adrenalin and other factors. These compounds act as antiaggregating and antistabilizing agents on the fibrin monomer. They dissolve non-stabilized fibrin, even in the presence of EACA or antiplasmin. Complex plasmin-heparin carries out the enzymatic lysis of stabilized fibrin in the presence of the same inhibitors of fibrinolysis. The clearance of I131-thiombin in blood stream depends from the eomplexing of enzyme with heparin. Complex Thrombin-heparin is absorbed in liver. The accumulation of other heparin complexes take place in the lungs, what is important for quick lysis of fibrin monomer aggregates in the vessels of this organ.