Cancer-Testis Antigens in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: Role and Potential Utility in Clinical Practice

Breast cancer cells commonly express tumour-associated antigens that can induce immune responses to eradicate the tumour. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a form of breast cancer lacking the expression of hormone receptors and cerbB2 (HER2) and tends to be more aggressive and associated with poorer prognoses due to the limited treatment options. Characterisation of biomarkers or treatment targets is thus of great significance in revealing additional therapeutic options. Cancer-testis antigens (CTAs) are tumour-associated antigens that have garnered strong attention as potential clinical biomarkers in targeted immunotherapy due to their cancer-restricted expressions and robust immunogenicity. Previous clinical studies reported that CTAs correlated with negative hormonal status, advanced tumour behaviour and a poor prognosis in a variety of cancers. Various studies also demonstrated the oncogenic potential of CTAs in cell proliferation by inhibiting cell death and inducing metastasis. Multiple clinical trials are in progress to evaluate the role of CTAs as treatment targets in various cancers. CTAs hold great promise as potential treatment targets and biomarkers in cancer, and further research could be conducted on elucidating the mechanism of actions of CTAs in breast cancer or combination therapy with other immune modulators. In the current review, we summarise the current understandings of CTAs in TNBC, addressing the role and utility of CTAs in TNBC, as well as discussing the potential applications and advantage of incorporating CTAs in clinical practise.

Cancer Immunotherapy in Children

This chapter discusses the principle of cancer immunotherapy in children and adolescents, starting with the most common form of cellular immunotherapy: allogeneic haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation (HSCT). It then discusses specific immunotherapy strategies based on the administration of classic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting tumour-associated antigens, novel bispecific antibodies that simultaneously target tumour-associated antigens and activate CD3+ T lymphocytes, and mAbs that block key inhibitory molecules of the immune system (checkpoint blockade). Finally, the chapter describes specific cellular immunotherapy approaches, such as tumour vaccine and adoptive transfer of immune cells. Although only a few immunotherapies have so far been incorporated into the standard practice for paediatric cancers, their role is enjoying a new revival, after the promising results obtained in recent clinical trials.