Feminization of Indian Migration: Patterns and Prospects

The migration of women or female migration has emerged as an important field of research within the larger domain of migration studies and is being extensively explored under various disciplines. This growing trend can be attributed to some major developments in international migration such as rising numbers of women migrants, growth of women-centric occupations, migration of women in an independent capacity, women-related legislations and growth of gendered perspectives on various issues. These factors together increased the visibility of women in the migration process and have given rise to what has been termed the ‘feminization of migration’. This paper explores the various nuances of the feminization of migration and aspects of female migration focusing on India. It begins with an overview of the growing numbers of women in the migratory flows and goes on to determine that despite the rising numbers and increased participation of women in the developmental dynamics of migration, they remain increasingly vulnerable and exposed to exploitation. The paper also highlights some of the critical policy decisions of the Government of India. The paper concludes that feminization of migration has undoubtedly increased the visibility of women in the migration discourse but much more needs to be done in terms of generating appropriate data, highlighting women’s role in the developmental process, evolving policies for ensuring their protection and security and above all empowering them and increasing their participation in the labour market.

The results of snap analysis of gender sensitivity of the Russian legislative acts (December 2018 – March 2021) in the context of feminization of migration

Women comprise nearly half of world’s migration. They are particularly vulnerable, thus their rights, interests, and special needs must be protected. In the period from 2016 to 2018, the Russian Federation has become one of the active participants in the development of international acts on refugees and migrants, which contain provisions aimed at feminization of migration related issues. These acts are not legally binding; however, Russia along with other countries that have joined this initiative, conducts the activity on implementation of internationally ratified principles into the national legislation. The article provides the results of snap analysis of the federal acts adopted in the period of December 2018 – March 2021, which was performed for pilot assessment of the current state of Russian law from the perspective of gender sensitivity and presence of favorable conditions for solution of the problems pertaining to feminization of migration. It was essential to understand whether the effective normative legal acts “see” a migrant woman as a special legal phenomenon, and which specific characteristics and needs of women are reflected in these acts. The conclusion is made that the Russian legislation is currently of gender neutral nature. Other than a range of documents related to implementation of the National Strategy for Women 2017 – 2022, the gender sensitivity of federal acts is generally low. The documents included into sampling, for the most part reflect the specific biological characteristics of women, which determine their health needs, as well as the need for targeted social support due to childbirth and maternity leave. The analyzed international acts have a broader outlook upon the characteristics and needs of women in general and migrant women in particular than the Russian legislation (other than the National Strategy for Women).

The dependence of the help of grandparents on the distance of household: on the example Russia, the United States, and Brazil

The key goals of this research consists in assessment and comparative analysis of the help of family in large postindustrial societies. For this purpose, the author carries out a cross-cultural comparative study of the frequency of family contacts in the three countries: Russia, the United States, and Brazil. Based on the 2019 online survey, the author collected quantitative data on the involvement of grandparents into upbringing process of their grandchildren in Russia (N=620), USA (N=308) and Brazil (N=603). In addition to the basic biosocial demographic parameters, the survey included two target questions on the frequency of communication between grandparents and grandchildren. Intensive migration processes and the resulting distance of households between the two generations in the indicated countries substantially reduces the traditional help of grandparents in upbringing the younger generation. The acquired data demonstrate the significant differences that take place in these three countries, and their correlation with the peculiarities of the family lifestyle in other countries. For example, the help of grandparents in Brazil is much lower than in Russia. Comprehensive analysis is also conducted on the factors that reduce the involvement of grandparents in upbringing of their grandchildren in Brazil. The decrease in the frequency of family contacts may be associated with the intensive urbanization processes unfolding in Brazil over the few recent decades. At the same time, the acquired data may reflect the in-depth processes of feminization of migration from less developed regions of the world to more economically prosperous countries. The analysis of the observed consequences of accelerated urbanization in Brazil is of applied importance for understanding the future prospects for the development of modern family.

Apuntes sociológicos de las inmigrantes suramericanas (Ecuador, Bolivia y Colombia) en Mallorca.

Se trata de visibilizar y mostrar las desigualdades de género en el marco de la diversidad cultural, en un contexto de multiculturalidad transcultural jerarquizada en Mallorca como sociedad receptora. Para constatar estos planteamientos se realizaron entrevistas en profundidad a mujeres afro-ecuatorianas y originarias, emigradas de Suramérica hacia Mallorca, registrando sus respuestas en un cuestionario-guía preestablecido. Éste fue contestado por 39 mujeres de origen étnico afro-ecuatoriano y originarias de Ecuador, Colombia y Bolivia. Estas mujeres constituyen una muestra y un ejemplo significativo de la feminización de la migración y la supervivencia colectiva. The aim is to make visible and show gender inequalities within the framework of cultural diversity, in a context of hierarchical cross-cultural multiculturalism in Mallorca as a host society. In order to verify these approaches, in-depth interviews were conducted with Afro-Ecuadorian women and indigenous natives, emigrated from South America to Mallorca, recording their responses in a pre-established questionnaire-guide. This was answered by 39 women of Afro-Ecuadorian and indigenous ethnicity from Ecuador, Colombia and Bolivia. They represent a significant aspect of the feminization of migration and collective survival.

DETERMINANTS OF FEMINIZATION OF MIGRATION IN TSHOLOTSHO DISTRICT OF ZIMBABWE

Tsholotsho District is one of the most significant contributors of migrants in Zimbabwe. Until recently, many of these migrants have been males, with females remaining behind assuming both feminine and masculine roles. Of late, however, females are increasingly venturing in migration expeditions. Why is this the case? Are women taking up economic roles in a society that has largely relegated them to familial responsibilities? What determines their increasing participation in a male dominated practice? These questions are answered in this paper based on a research conducted in Ward 5 of Tsholotsho District in 2016 as well as continued interaction with interlocutors till present day. The results indicated that reasons for feminized migration cut across different realms such as fleeing unfavourable economic conditions, to unite with their migrant spouses, to contribute towards diversifying household income sources, and fleeing unhappy marriages and burdensome familial controls among others. This led the researcher to firmly conclude that feminization of migration is a new reality and future of Tsholotsho’s migration trajectory, one that will be accompanied by resultant problems and opportunities. It will require therefore, careful migration management systems in the country to harness the benefits of this migration typology while offsetting the possible problems.

Who Goes Next? The Gendered Expansion of Mexican and Senegalese Migrant Sibling Networks in Space and Time

The migration literature shows that individuals whose siblings have migrated abroad are more likely to migrate, yet we know little about sibling migrant networks. We use MMP and MAFE-Senegal survey data to compare migration patterns in two very disparate contexts (Mexico and Senegal) in an attempt to assess the scope, manner, and generalizability of sibling network migration patterns. Our results show that while Senegalese families are likely to have one international migrant, Mexican families are likely to send two or more members abroad. Sibling migrations from Mexico fall closer together in time than do those from Senegal, suggesting joint sibling migration. Also, while Mexican sibling networks did not seem to contribute to the expansion of Mexican migrant destinations, Senegalese sibling networks did contribute (slightly) to the expansion of Senegalese migration. Sibling networks in both settings contributed considerably to the feminization of migration.