Species and Salvation: Theology of History in the Anthropocene?

In this article I will discuss various thoughts of a few recent representatives of the tradition of the philosophy of history—Heinz Dieter Kittsteiner, Ulrich Beck, and finally Karl Rahner—and bring them into a conversation with Dipesh Chakrabarty's work on the problems of human species history and the Anthropocene. The aim of this undertaking is to gain greater clarity on the question of the work that theology continues to do for historical thought. I argue that Rahner's notions about “inclusivism”—according to which the possibility of salvation is vested in the species history of humanity rather than in the history of Christian revelation—and his related notion of an irresolvable tension between “anonymous” and what one might then call “onomastic” histories signal the continuing significance of a theology of the baptismal sacrament for historical thought. Rereading Rahner's thought sheds light on certain quandaries of the Anthropocene discussion, regarding the way in which species history can be related to other kinds of history writing, and the novel opening for theodicy generated by the breakdown of the culture–nature divide.

Biblical Theology and the Apocrypha

The books of the Apocrypha contain extensive reflection on the theologies of earlier Jewish writings, particularly in regard to election, the Torah, and the Deuteronomistic theology of history, in the face of several critical situations facing the Jewish people (the advance and advantages of Hellenization, the repression of Judaism under Antiochus IV, ongoing life as a minority culture throughout the Diaspora, and domination and devastation under Rome). They also bear witness to important developments both in personal and national eschatology and in the identification of supernatural forces impacting human existence (e.g., angels and demons). Early Christians, in turn, found these texts to provide important resources for their reflection upon the person and work of Jesus, applying developments within the Wisdom tradition in their delineation of the relationship of the Son to God and within the Jewish martyrological traditions to their professions about the atoning force of Jesus’ death. These texts thus exercised an important influence on the theologies articulated in the New Testament and the development of the doctrines and creeds embraced by the universal church, despite the ongoing discussions within the church concerning their canonical status.

Augustine’s Use of Rhetorical Economy in His Theology of History

Chapter 4 focuses on Augustine’s utilization of rhetorical economy as the logic by which he explains God’s providential ordering of the entire temporal creation as it moves through time. In the first section a close reading of On True Religion 22.42–3 reveals that Augustine utilizes rhetorical economy early in his career as the logic by which he explains the goodness of temporal things against the Manichaean position that evil is substantial. A lengthy analysis of On Music 6.11.29–30 then demonstrates that Augustine continues to utilize rhetorical economy in the mid to late 390s in order to explain how God arranges human beings within history. The final section then shows that Augustine uses rhetorical economy late in his career to explain both the differing methods of worship in the Old and New Testaments and how God incorporates human beings who become evil into the whole of history.

Augustine’s Use of Rhetorical Economy in His Theology of Creation

Chapters 3–5 form a second unit (Part II) which provides insights into fundamental aspects of Augustine’s thought by demonstrating and analyzing his use of rhetorical economy in his theology of creation, his theology of history, and his theodicy. In Chapter 3 close readings of On Genesis against the Manichaeans 1.21.32 and Sermon 29D.4–7 reveal that Augustine utilizes rhetorical economy as the logic by which he justifies his positions on the goodness of all creation and God’s providence over all human affairs against seeming counterevidence from daily life presented by his opponents. An analysis of On Order 1.7.18 then indicates that Augustine’s utilization of rhetorical economy in his theology of creation derives from his integration of rhetorical economy into the heart of his concept of order.

The 1950s: The Ironies of American Power

In the 1950s, Reinhold Niebuhr advanced a theology of history rooted in his theology of the Cross. From that vantage point, he challenged conventional, dualistic interpretations of the Cold War, the Civil Rights Movement, and America’s post-Second World War economic and technological prominence. While he favoured democracy over communism, African American rights over segregation, and abundance over scarcity, he rejected what he thought of as the human pretension to simplify such complex historical phenomena by appeals to American goodness. Instead Niebuhr saw the logic of the Cross as the surest route for navigating the confusion and ironies of history while also creating the conditions for greater forms of justice in history.