Self-Cultivation as the Basis of Person Making: A Confucian Perspective Illustrated by a Case Study of Zeng Guofan

As a model of self-cultivation in accordance with the Confucian theory of Xinxing-Gongfu (心性-功夫论), Zeng Guofan (1811–1872), a well-renowned Confucian scholar and successful minister of the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912) in China, is a prime exemplar of ‘self-cultivation as the basis of person-making’ (修身为本). Considerable historical data proves he consciously strove to perfect himself in a systemic way. By examining his Diaries, Family Letters, and Reading Records, this study identifies that he had three interrelated practices of self-cultivation: (a) The establishment of the moral self. With the proposition that ‘if you are not a sage, you are a beast’, Zeng advocated improving one’s character through self-reflection, self-blame, self-discipline and self-encouragement. (b) Individual moral practice and the learning of moral knowledge. Zeng believed that one could strengthen one’s moral cultivation by keeping a diary, meditating, reading Confucian classics, extracting and reciting famous quotes from former sages, writing essays and practicing calligraphy. (c) The construction of family and cultural community. Zeng’s experience provides illustration that cultural communities can be constructed through the process of a father delivering life experiences to his children, friends and colleagues, and that self-criticism can be used in the service of self-enhancement in Confucian psychology.

Introduction to Confucian Psychology: Background, Content, and an Agenda for the Future

Psychology has a pervasive but shallow engagement with Confucian philosophy, mainly referencing its popular form as a part of Chinese tradition. This special issue takes a more systematic view of Confucianism as comprehensive philosophy. Drawing from New Confucianism, it is argued that the signal contribution of Confucianism to psychology as human (rather than natural) science is an ontology of the moral mind (heaven and humanity in union). This holistic ontology makes the cultivation of benevolence (仁) a lifelong mission for Confucianists. Practices of self-cultivation are exemplified by a case study of Zeng Guofan, a Qing Dynasty official and scholar, who combined academics, calligraphy, meditation, diary writing and self-reflection to refine his character, nurture and educate his family, and be of service to society. Second, Confucianism’s traditional lack of interest in epistemology is addressed through the complementary (dialectical) principle of ‘one principle, many manifestations’, where methods of Western science can be incorporated into the investigation of practices such as brush calligraphy that are shown to have beneficial effects on mental and physical health. Confucianism can also be treated as an object of scientific inquiry: We find that even among highly educated Chinese people, understanding of Confucianism today is mostly fragmented and abstract. Confucian Psychology can be summarised as a psychology of aspirations for bettering the condition of humanity through character development and greater awareness of the situation to realise the endowment of moral mind. Finally, there are deep connections between Confucian and Indian psychology—both involve height psychology, a psychology of aspirations and for spiritual transformation.

Missionaries in the Manchu City (1864–1905)

The large transnational flows of people, ideas, and resources that characterized twentieth-century global modernity had early expressions within the imperial institutions (and aspiring or quasi-imperial institutions) of the nineteenth century. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom rebellion, Qing imperial bureaucracy, and London Missionary Society all engaged in the same project of connecting individuals through national and transnational networks held together by charismatic ideas and institutional resources. For the five individuals whose lives intertwine in this chapter (Hong Xiuquan, Christian rebel; Zeng Guofan, Qing imperial official; Samuel Evans Meech, missionary; Lillie E. V. Saville, missionary doctor; and Wei Enbo, cloth merchant), these networks provided expanded opportunities to engage with the world and transform it to reflect a particular universalistic vision. As people sought to realize these distinctive visions and the charismatic worldviews they represented, they created and extended large organizational structures in which their ideals were embodied, but also attenuated.

A Pictorial Autobiography by Zeng Jifen (1852-1942) and the Use of the “Exemplary” in China’s Modern Transformation

Zeng Jifen (1852-1942), a daughter of the distinguished Qing official Zeng Guofan (1811-72), incorporated rich visual materials into her self-edited nianpu or chronological ­autobiography (1931; 1933) for the purpose of modelling the “ancients’ practice of incorporating pictures and texts concurrently.” The effect was a pictorial autobiography that launched a social critique through an exemplary life story and the art of “praise and blame” inherent in the Chinese biographical and artistic traditions. In highlighting the mechanisms Zeng employed to construct her personal history and engage in conversations on familial and national levels across several decades, this study illuminates her ongoing efforts to capitalize on her family heritage and the Confucian ritual tradition for social and political reform. During the process, what may appear to be her tenacious grip on the ritual restraints on women, as previously interpreted, initiated a sea change in women’s education and expanded the authority of women from the domestic sphere to the nationalist state.