PITCHING IN YOUTH SOFTBALL: HOW MUCH ARE PITCHERS THROWING?

Background: Softball is a popular sport among youth female athletes. While multiple youth baseball studies have evaluated the relationship of injury to pitch counts, there is a paucity of literature for youth softball. In contrast to the numerous youth baseball leagues adhering to pitching guidelines, pitch counts are frequently not enforced in youth softball which results in pitchers with exceedingly high volumes. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to perform a quantitative analysis of pitching volume in youth softball players. We hypothesized that the majority of pitches would be thrown by a small proportion of pitchers on each team. Methods: Seventy youth softball teams including 538 pitchers competing in age brackets eight and under (8U) to fourteen and under (14U) between Spring 2017 and Fall 2019. Game dates and pitch counts were collected for each player using an electronic application. Games played on two or more consecutive days were defined as a tournament. The three highest-volume pitchers from each team defined by total season pitches were analyzed for comparison to the average pitcher. Results: 538 pitchers on 70 teams were included. The average pitcher threw 813 pitches per year and appeared in 20.0% of games and the average high-volume pitcher threw 2500 pitches per year and appeared in 54.5% of games. The highest-volume pitcher from each team threw 40% of all recorded pitches, the second highest 27.2%, and the third highest 15.2%, totaling 82.4% of all team pitches. Single day pitch counts of >100 and >200 occurred in 17.7%, and 1.1% of same day games with the average pitcher and in 31.2%, and 2.4% of same day games with the average highest-volume pitcher. Tournament pitch counts of >100 and >200 occurred in 51.0% and 13.8% of tournaments with the average pitcher and in 81.4% and 30.8% of tournaments with the average highest-volume pitcher. The average and highest-volume pitcher threw pitches in two or more games on the same day in 37.5% and 48.6% of possible games while pitching two or more consecutive days in 64.0% and 79.6% of possible games, respectively. Conclusion: Softball pitchers throw high volumes of pitches while also pitching multiple days consecutively. A disparity among pitchers on softball teams exists as 82.4% of team pitches are thrown by three pitchers. These high-volume pitchers may be engaging in unsustainable pitching practices that could predispose to injury. Tables: [Table: see text]

The Relationship Between Coach Expectations and Female Softball Athletes’ Motivation and Perceptions of Coach Behavior

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between coach expectations, female athletes’ perceptions of coach behavior, and motivation to play softball, and to observe changes in perceptions of behavior and motivation by expectancy group. Self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000) was used as a guide. Participants were randomly selected from Division I softball teams competing in the United States (n = 20). Head coaches (n = 20) completed evaluations rating expectations of athletes’ performance ability, and athletes (n = 148) self-reported motivation and perceived coaching behaviors pre- and post-study. Cluster analysis distinguished between three expectancy groups based from coach expectation ratings: High, low, and average. Pearson’s r revealed weak relationships between coach expectancy ratings, perceived coaching behaviors, and motivation. Split-plot analysis of variance tests revealed expectancy groups perceived behaviors differently and were motivated differently. Low expectancy athletes perceived more non-rewarding behaviors, less positive behaviors, and were more non-self-determined to play softball. Overall, coaches were perceived as mostly positive.

Lesbian Identity Formation and the Sport Environment

This study is an examination of the identity formation of lesbians in sport and how lesbians interpreted the softball environment with regard to social support and the ability to be open about their lesbianism. Twenty four women on summer slow pitch softball teams, and 5 spectators, participated in qualitative interviews. Responses were consistent with a model of lesbian identity formation that included preconformist, conformist, post-conformist, lesbian conformist, and lesbian post-conformist levels. The support these women received from softball players helped them to come out to others and to enter the lesbian community.

The Relationship between Perceived Coaching Behaviors and Team Cohesion among Baseball and Softball Players

The relationship between perceived leadership behaviors and team cohesion in high school and junior college baseball and softball teams was researched. Study participants, 307 athletes representing 23 teams, responded to the perceived version of the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS) and the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ). Correlational and multivariate analyses indicated significant relationships between perceived leader behaviors and team cohesion. Specifically, coaches who were perceived as high in training and instruction, democratic behavior, social support, and positive feedback, and low in autocratic behavior, had teams that were more cohesive. A MANOVA indicated there were significant differences between genders and athletes at the two school levels in their perceptions of coaching behaviors and team cohesion, though these demographic variables did not significantly moderate the leadership-cohesion relationship.

Sex Differences and Specificity of Anticipation of Coincidence

This investigation was conducted to determine if anticipation of coincidence as measured by the Bassin timer relates to “real world” skill of ball batting and to investigate further sex differences in perceptual-motor skills. 24 varsity athletes from a Midwest university's baseball and softball teams were tested on the Bassin timer and their batting averages were obtained from their respective coaches. A nonsignificant correlation suggests that the task on the Bassin timer is different from the anticipation of coincidence in hitting a softball or baseball. Evidence suggested that prior experience rather than sex may contribute to differences between men and women in perceptual-motor skills.