Evaluating the “United Monarchy” of Israel: Unity and Identity in Text and Archaeology

The article argues that many interpretations of the so-called “United Monarchy” of Saul, David, and Solomon are built upon false assumptions and problematic hermeneutics, not to mention that they draw upon anachronistic terminology. The article provides a brief overview of the use of the terms “United Monarchy” and “Davidic/Solomonic Empire” in modern scholarship before turning to recent attempts to theorize and model ancient monarchies, including the ways in which ancient kingdoms controlled territory and how leaders legitimized their power and expressed their authority in a manner that unified their constituencies. From there it re-evaluates the biblical portrayal of the monarchies of Saul, David, and Solomon, considering in particular the nature of early Israel’s political and social unity and identity, before turning to the potential archaeological correlates of political power during the reigns of these kings.

The “United Monarchy” on the Ground: The Disruptive Character of the Iron Age I–II Transition and the Nature of Political Transformations

It is commonly agreed that the Iron Age I–II transition was gradual and that processes of social complexity initiated in the Iron Age I simply matured in the Iron Age II. The emergence of Levantine kingdoms – whether the so-called “United Monarchy” (i.e., the highland polity) or other polities – was therefore seen as an outcome of this gradual maturation, even if the date of their emergence is hotly debated. The present paper challenges both the perceived gradual nature of Iron Age complexity and the dated understanding of state formation processes that lies behind the common scholarly reconstructions of Iron Age political developments. Instead, the paper shows that the Iron Age I–II transition was troubled and was accompanied by drastic changes in many parameters, whether settlement patterns, settlement forms, or various material traits. Acknowledging these transformations is therefore the first step in understanding the process through which local kingdoms emerged.

Voices from below: The role of anonymous women’s opinion in the birth of Israel’s monarchy

This article argues that the opinion of anonymous women in the books of Samuel exerts a powerful influence over the reputation and political fortune of Israel’s first kings. The descriptions of the singing women who greet Saul when he returns with David from battle (1 Sam 18.6-7, 21.12, 29.5) reveal that, in this turbulent period, popular opinion forms at the lowest rungs of society and percolates from the bottom up. David demonstrates his own appreciation of this fact by actively cultivating the favor of disenfranchised women (2 Sam 6.14-22). Previous studies of community sentiment within Samuel have paid insufficient attention to women as generators of public opinion during the formation of the united monarchy.

Transition from Iron I to Iron II

The principal issue in this chapter is a discussion of whether or not a united monarchy existed during the tenth century BCE. That requires an analysis of current archaeological data, extrabiblical records, and the biblical narratives associated with the reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon. In addition, these data are coupled with an examination of the social, economic, and political forces that were at work during this period. These include an examination of the necessary steps that would need to be take to shift from a multi-polity, decentralized social organization to a chiefdom and ultimately to a centralized monarchy. As part of this discussion, legal precedents, the iconic importance of monumental architecture, the role of the ark of the covenant, the importance of Jerusalem as a political and religious capital city, and interaction with the Philistines and other political rivals are reviewed.

The “Governor’s Residency” at Tel ‘Eton, The United Monarchy, and the Impact of the Old-House Effect on Large-Scale Archaeological Reconstructions

The “governor’s residency” at Tel ‘Eton was destroyed in the late 8th century BCE in an Assyrian military campaign. While the numerous finds enable a detailed reconstruction of life on the eve of the destruction, this elite house was cleaned continuously, and since no floor raisings were identified, little was known of the building’s period of use. Radiocarbon (14C) samples taken from within a foundation deposit and from the floor make-up, however, indicate that the earliest phase of the residency was built in the late 11th–10th century BCE. This has bearings on the date in which social complexity evolved in Judah, on the debate regarding the historicity of the kingdom of David and Solomon, and it also provides the earliest date for the use of ashlar stones in Judah. Finally, the long life of the “governor’s residency” exemplifies a little addressed phenomenon—the old-house effect—in which buildings and settlements existed for a few centuries, but only left significant remains from their last phase. The earlier phases are hardly represented in the finds, barely studied, and rarely published. We suggest that the old-house effect influences archaeological interpretations world-wide, and is also responsible for recent attempts to down-date social complexity in Judah.