The missing fundamentals of harmonic theory: Chord roots and their ambiguity in arrangements of jazz standards

Since Lippius and Rameau, chords have roots that are often voiced in the bass, doubled, and used as labels. Psychological experiments and analyses of databases of Western classical music have not produced clear evidence for the psychological reality of chord roots. We analyzed a symbolic database of 100 arrangements of jazz standards (musical instrument digital interface [MIDI] files from midkar.com and thejazzpage.de ). Selection criteria were representativeness and quality.The original songs had been composed in the 1930s and 1950s, and each file had a beat track. Files were converted to chord progressions by identifying tone onsets near beat locations (±10% of beat duration). Chords were classified as triads (major, minor, diminished, suspended) or seventh chords (major–minor, minor, major, half-diminished, diminished, and suspended) plus extra tones. Roots that were theoretically less ambiguous were more often in the bass or (to a lesser extent) doubled. The root of the minor triad was ambiguous, as predicted (conventional root or third). Of the sevenths, the major–minor had the clearest root. The diminished triad was often part of a major–minor seventh chord; the half-diminished seventh, of a dominant ninth. Added notes (“tensions”) tended to minimize dissonance (roughness or inharmonicity). In arrangements of songs from the 1950s, diminished triads and sevenths were less common, and suspended triads more common, relative to the 1930s. Results confirm the psychological reality of chord roots and their specific ambiguities. Results are consistent with Terhardt’s virtual pitch theory and the idea that musical chords emerge gradually from cultural and historic processes. The approach can enrich music theory (including pitch-class set analysis) and jazz pedagogy.

improvising inquiry in the community: the teacher profile

Improvising involves participants adopting attitudes and dispositions that make them welcoming towards what happens, even when it is unforeseen. How is the discourse on improvisation and a disposition to improvise in the community connected to the concept of inquiry? What type of reasoning can be developed? This paper aims to reflect on two different perspectives. On the one hand, we consider the feasibility of improvising inquiry in the community, promoting inquiry as an activity that can be developed extemporaneously when teacher and students form a community with an “improvising” habitus. On the other hand, we underscore the intrinsic improvisational dimension of inquiry that takes shape in philosophical dialogue in the community. To develop these two educational and formative perspectives, participants students and particularly teachers must first acquire a “readiness” for improvisation which is a sort of complex attitude. Some results of previous research on improvisation are presented to explain and emphasize the features of this complex disposition. Teachers who improvise suddenly open a window on events happening in the community, serving as an example for the class which is invited to do the same. Teachers thus become improviser-facilitators within the community, embracing the feature of a new jazz-pedagogy at the same time.

Jazz Ensembles

This chapter acknowledges the growth of jazz ensembles in instrumental music education and the value of preparing future music educators to teach jazz. It situates jazz pedagogy in an authentic, experiential framework, emphasizing the important role of the rhythm section and what it means to be culturally literate through improvisation. Topics such as jazz theory, swing feel, and jazz styles are examined. The chapter also discusses a paradigm shift in the conceptualization of music education, whereby an interpreter-performer perspective is replaced by a creator-performer perspective. Musicians’ roles as composers and improvisers in the jazz idiom suggest learning this art form is relevant for developing creative performers who may then be able to participate in a variety of other musical cultures.

Teaching School Jazz

Teaching School Jazz: Perspectives, Principles, and Strategies is an edited collection of suggested practices in school jazz education authored by a seasoned and diverse lineup of jazz educators with supporting research-based case studies woven into the narrative. It provides not only a wealth of school jazz teaching strategies but also, and perhaps as important, the jazz perspectives and principles from which they are derived. The first part of the book describes the current landscape of school jazz education and offers an overview of basic jazz concepts through the lenses of two expert, yet very different, school jazz educators. Parts II–VI constitute the heart and soul of the book, covering a vast and comprehensive set of topics central to school jazz education. Included throughout each chapter are references and links to audio, visual, and print resources for teaching school jazz that are downloadable from a related website. This text is an invaluable resource for preservice and in-service music educators who have no prior jazz experience, as well as for those who wish to expand their knowledge of jazz performance practice and pedagogy. The book may serve as a primary text for collegiate-level jazz pedagogy courses or as a supplemental text for general instrumental methods and pedagogy classes. Chapters begin with jazz case studies and contain a wealth of jazz-specific teaching material, lists of recommended artists for listening, and visual demonstrations of each chapter’s material.

Guide-Tone Space

This article develops a transformational space based on the concept of guide tones. In jazz pedagogy, guide tones are the chordal third and seventh and are often used to connect consecutive chords through efficient voice leading. Transformational representations of guide-tone syntax illustrate how guide tones provide a pathway for listeners and improvisers to seamlessly traverse the tonally complex harmonic progressions often found in jazz compositions.

Extending the Discussion: First Steps in Developing Band Director Self-Efficacy in a Jazz Setting

Based on Regier’s article, concert and marching band pedagogical strategies might not transfer to the jazz setting. Participating in jazz pedagogical workshops or graduate courses may develop director jazz pedagogy self-efficacy when possible. This “Extending the Discussion” article provides alternative suggestions for band directors to become more familiar with jazz improvisation and phrasing, thereby possibly improving self-efficacy in jazz pedagogy settings.

About the Development of Improvisational Skills in the Pupils of Children’s Music Schools

A considerable amount of pedagogical manuals and the programs devoted to methods of instruction of improvisation is connected with examining improvisation in the context of jazz pedagogy, or the art of performance (most frequently — piano). However, the development of the composer’s improvisational skills is deemed to be more important. The diffi culties of creation of the algorithm of instruction of this type of activities, but quite apparent is the set of conditions connected, fi rst of all, with the natural inclination towards improvisation, and also the presence of compositional abilities; second, with the mandatory mastery of an entire complex of music theory knowledge. Upon the combination of these two factors, it becomes possible to speak of a high level of development of improvisational skills. The article offers the point of view regarding the organization of the process of acquisition of skills of improvisation, the basis of which is comprised by six basic components, presenting six types of improvisation: melodic, poetical, harmonic, textural, ornamental and genre-related. Each separately presented subject is signifi cant, most notably, for the content of the course of “Composition,” which reveals the basic laws of construction of a musical composition, which, in their turn, are fundamental for the development of improvisational abilities. And because improvisation frequently becomes the fi rst impulse for creating a musical composition, which presumes its expression through spontaneity, it follows that both improvisation and composition thereby exist in close mutual connection.

A Comparative Analysis of Method Books for Class Jazz Instruction

The purpose of this study was to analyze and compare instructional topics and teaching approaches included in selected class method books for jazz pedagogy through content analysis methodology. Frequency counts for the number of pages devoted to each defined instructional content category were compiled and percentages of pages allotted to each category were calculated. Analyses of supplementary media consisted of noting the duration in seconds that each excerpt devoted to illustrating concepts in each instructional content category. Results indicated that the largest amount of content was devoted to arrangements of tunes for group performance (34%), rhythm section pedagogy (13%), and suggested rehearsal techniques (10%). Of note, the categories of improvisation and aural training each comprised only 3% of the surveyed content. Pedagogical approaches to the emphasized instructional areas were identified and discussed within the context of prior research in jazz pedagogy.