Ethephon Foliar Sprays Are Influenced by Carrier Water Alkalinity and Ambient Air Temperature at Application

The plant growth regulator (PGR) ethephon [(2-chloroethyl) phosphonic acid; ETH] can be sprayed on floriculture crops to inhibit internode elongation, hinder apical dominance, increase lateral branching, and abort flower buds and flowers. However, the efficacy of ETH can be reduced as the pH of the carrier water used to mix the spray solution or temperature increase. Therefore, our objective was to quantify how the efficacy of ethephon sprays is influenced by carrier water alkalinity (CaCO3; ALK) and the air temperature at application (TEMP). Young plants of verbena (Verbena peruviana) ‘Aztec Blue Velvet’, ivy geranium (Pelargonium ×peltatum) ‘Precision Pink’, and petunia (Petunia ×hybrida) ‘Easy Wave Neon Rose’ were transplanted into 11-cm-diameter containers and grown in a greenhouse with an average daily air temperature (ADT) set point of 21 °C. Before the ETH spray application(s), the ADT in each greenhouse compartment was changed from a set point of 21 °C to 14, 17, 20, 23, or 26 °C for ≈24 hours. Plants were sprayed with 0, 250, 500, or 750 mg·L−1 ETH mixed with carrier water containing ≈50, 150, or 300 mg·L−1 CaCO3 2 and 3 weeks (Expt. 1) or 1 or 2 weeks (Expt. 2) after transplant. Generally, high ALK had a negative effect on spray efficacy. For example, an increase in ALK from 50 to 300 mg·L−1 CaCO3 resulted in one and five fewer ivy geranium and verbena branches, respectively. In addition, as application TEMP increased above 23 °C, chemical efficacy generally decreased in all species. For instance, as ETH increased from 0 to 750 mg·L−1 across ALKs, inflorescence number of ivy geraniums increased from 7 to 18 at a TEMP of 23 °C, but was unaffected at 26 °C. Based on our results, we can conclude that both ALK and TEMP influence ETH efficacy and are additional factors for greenhouse growers to consider when making applications.

Physiological Responses of Ivy Geranium ‘Beach’ and ‘Butterfly’ to Heat Stress

The development of bleaching of the youngest leaves of actively growing ivy geranium (Pelargonium peltatum) has been observed as the season progresses from late spring to summer. Cultivar differences in foliar bleaching in response to elevated air temperature were studied. Ivy geranium ‘Beach’ and ‘Butterfly’ were grown in media containing sphagnum peat and perlite (70:30 v/v) for 6 weeks in modified greenhouse chambers with air temperatures averaging 28/16 or 36/22 °C (day/night). ‘Beach’ had greater plant width, growth index, leaf area, total fresh weight, and total dry weight than ‘Butterfly’ regardless of temperature. Overall, elevated air temperatures severely reduced plant width, plant growth index, leaf area, fresh weight, and dry weight of ivy geraniums. Elevated air temperatures caused foliar bleaching in both cultivars; however, ‘Butterfly’ was more susceptible to bleaching than ‘Beach’. ‘Beach’ had higher chlorophyll (Chl) b and total Chl content than ‘Butterfly’ at ambient air temperature, but they were similar at elevated air temperatures. Regardless of temperature, ‘Beach’ had greater Chl a, carotenoids (Caro), and pheophytins content but lower Chl a:Caro, Chl b:Caro, and total Chl:Caro ratios than ‘Butterfly’. This may contribute to the lower susceptibility to bleaching of ‘Beach’. Elevated air temperatures reduced Chl a, Caro, Chl a:Caro, Chl b:Caro, total Chl:Caro, and pheophytins content of ivy geraniums. In both cultivars, manganese (Mn) content increased with elevated air temperatures, but ‘Beach’ had greater Mn content than ‘Butterfly’. Total iron (Fe) content did not vary with cultivar or temperature. Irrespective of temperature, zinc (Zn) content was greater in ‘Beach’ than ‘Butterfly’, and irrespective of cultivar, Zn content was greater at elevated air temperatures. These results suggest greater chlorophyll, carotenoids, pheophytins, foliar Mn, and Zn contents play a role in reduced susceptibility of ‘Beach’ to foliar bleaching.

Elevated Air Temperatures Cause Foliar Bleaching of Ivy Geranium ‘Beach’ and ‘Butterfly’

Bleaching of the youngest leaves of actively growing ivy geranium (Pelargonium peltatum L.) develops as the temperature increases from late spring to summer in the southeastern United States. Heat stress-induced iron deficiency has been suspected as causing this disorder. Ivy geranium ‘Beach’ (bleaching-resistant) and ‘Butterfly’ (bleaching-susceptible) were grown for 8 weeks at 24 or 31 °C average root-zone temperature and iron chelate (Fe-EDDHA, 6% Fe) was applied at 0 mg Fe (control), 0.54 mg Fe foliar spray, 1.08 mg Fe foliar spray, 54 mg Fe drench, or 108 mg Fe drench per plant at 30-day intervals. In a second experiment, ivy geranium ‘Beach’ and ‘Butterfly’ plants were grown for 6 weeks at 28 °C day/16 °C night or 36 °C day/22 °C night average air temperatures and iron chelate (Fe-EDDHA, 6% Fe) was applied at 0 mg (control) or 27 mg Fe soil drench per pot at 15-day intervals. No bleaching was observed as a result of elevated root-zone temperatures. High levels of Fe-chelate suppressed growth reducing fresh weight, dry weight, and fresh-to-dry-weight ratio in ‘Butterfly’. Elevated air temperatures severely reduced plant growth, leaf area, fresh weight, and dry weight in both cultivars. Elevated air temperature reduced chlorophyll a, carotenoids, and pheophytins in ‘Butterfly’ but not in ‘Beach’. Fe-chelate application had no effect at ambient temperature but increased chlorophyll to carotenoids ratio (Chl:Caro) at elevated air temperatures in ‘Butterfly’. Therefore, elevated air temperatures were determined to be the cause of bleaching in ivy geranium.

Comparing Chemical and Biological Control Strategies for Twospotted Spider Mites in Mixed Production of Ivy Geranium and Impatiens

Biological and chemical control strategies for the twospotted spider mite (TSM; Tetranychus urticae) were evaluated in a greenhouse experiment replicated over time in mixed production of ivy geranium (Pelgargonium peltatum ‘Amethyst 96’) and two impatiens cultivars (Impatiens wallerana ‘Impulse Orange’ and ‘Cajun Carmine’). Chemical control using the miticide bifenazate was compared with two release strategies for biological control using the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis. Specific treatments included 1) a single application of bifenazate at 0.3 g·L−1 formulation (22.6% a.i.); 2) a single release of predatory mites at a 1:4 predator to pest ratio based on sampled pest density; 3) a weekly release of predatory mites at numbers based on the area covered by the crop; and 4) an untreated control. TSM populations were monitored for 4 weeks. After another 4 weeks, when plants were ready for market, plant quality ratings were recorded. The number of TSM per leaf dropped for all treatments on all genotypes but increased in the untreated plants. On ivy geranium, the fact that there were significantly more TSM on untreated plants was not reflected in average plant quality, but it did reduce the proportion of containers rated as salable at full price compared with both chemical and biological control. On impatiens, both treatment and cultivar had significant effects on the mean plant quality rating and on the proportion of containers rated as salable at full price. The use of a sampling plan to determine the appropriate number of predators to release was as effective as the currently recommended management treatments for TSM in bedding plants.

Plant Age, Fertilization, and Biological Control Affect Damage Caused by Twospotted Spider Mites on Ivy Geranium: Development of an Action Threshold

In three experiments, damage caused by twospotted spider mite (TSSM; Tetranychus urticae Koch) was correlated with the quality of ivy geranium [Pelargonium peltatum (L.) L'Her ex Aiton], and the action threshold for TSSM on ivy geranium was developed. Ivy geranium quality was measured as overall plant quality—plant size and form, and leaf greenness and glossiness—leaf browning, and leaf distortion. Young plants with high initial TSSM numbers (30 TSSM/plant) exhibited the greatest damage, suggesting that monitoring for TSSM early in the plant production cycle is necessary to prevent extensive damage. The leaf distortion index and overall plant quality were correlated with cumulative TSSM density and marketability in 4-week-old plants infested with 30 TSSM, whereas leaf browning was not correlated with either. Thus, either leaf distortion or overall plant quality can be used to measure economic damage resulting from TSSM. The action threshold for TSSM on ivy geranium was determined using overall plant quality. When the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot, is used to control TSSM, the action threshold was found to be 2 TSSM/leaf. Results also showed that fertilizer combinations of 8 or 24 mm nitrogen and 0.32, 0.64, or 1.28 mm phosphorus had no effect on cumulative TSSM density. When P. persimilis was released at predator: prey ratios of 1:60, 1:20, and 1:4, TSSM damage, measured as both leaf distortion and overall plant quality, was significantly reduced at 1:4 and 1:20, but not at 1:60. A 1:4 rate resulted in the most marketable plants. These results suggest that P. persimilis should be released at a rate of 1:4 when the TSSM action threshold is reached.

Efficacy of Ethephon on Vegetative Annuals

Plant response to ethephon treatment was tested on 27 cultivars of vegetative annuals that have spreading and trailing growth habits. A control treatment was compared to 500 and 1000 mg·L-1 (ppm) foliar spray treatments of ethephon. Plant height and/or width index were significantly reduced for 81% of the cultivars tested. Responsive cultivars were alternanthera (Alternanthera dentata), brachyscome (Brachyscome iberidifolia) `Toucan Tango'; calibrachoa (Calibrachoa hybrids) `Colorburst Red', `Million Bells Cherry Pink', and `Trailing Pink'; diascia (Diascia × hybrida) `Sunchimes Rose' and `Red Ace'; double impatiens (Impatiens wallerana) `Tioga Red' and `Tioga White'; sweetpotato vine (Ipomoea batatas) `Sweet Caroline Bronze'; lantana (Lantana camara) `Patriot Cherry' and `Samantha'; nemesia (Nemesia × hybrida) `Aromatica Dark Lavender', `Blue Bird', and `Blueberry Sachet'; nolana (Nolana paradoxa) `Blue Eyes'; ivy geranium (Pelargonium hybrida) `King of Balcon'; petunia (Petunia × hybrida) `Cascadia Pink', `Mini Bright Pink', and `Supertunia Mini Purple'; bacopa (Sutera cordata) `Bridal Showers'; and vinca vine (Vinca minor) `Illumination'. Ethephon was not effective on monopsis (Monopsis unidentata) `Royal Flush', persicaria (Persicaria microcephala) `Red Dragon', or calibrachoa `Liricashower Rose'. Different cultivars of petunia showed varied responses to ethephon treatments as did trailing snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus) `Chandelier Yellow' and `Luminaire Yellow'. Flower number was reduced in 55% of the cultivars due to a delay in flowering. The experiment finds efficacy of ethephon for most cultivars treated at rates greater than or equal to that used commercially, however more research is needed to determine optimum concentrations for the specific cultivars. Chemical name used: ethephon [(2-chloroethyl) phosphonic acid].